Referring back - Referring back in a specific way

Referring back

2 When you speak or write, you very often refer back to something that has already been mentioned or make a connection with it.

pronouns 3 One common way of referring back to something is to use a personal pronoun such as 'she', 'it', or 'them', or a possessive pronoun such as 'mine' or 'hers'.

Davis opened a door. 'Here's your room, I'm afraid it's a bit untidy.' He picked a dirty handkerchief off the floor and stuffed it in a drawer.

The keeper came loping softly up the lane with the dog padding at his heels, and we watched them through the hedge as they went by.

I held her very close. My cheek was against hers.

Personal pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.96 to 1.10 Possessive pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.110 to 1.11

There are also other pronouns which can be used to refer back. These include pronouns such as 'another' and 'many' which have the same form as general determiners. These are explained in paragraph 1.153.

programmes which tell the computer to do one thing rather than another.

You can also used a quantifier or a cardinal number.

The women were asked to leave. Some of them refused.

These soldiers had no doubt that the invasion was upon them. Many of them had already been involved in fighting.

the Guatemalan earthquake which killed 24,000 people and injured 77,000.

Quantifiers are explained in paragraphs 2.193 to 2.210. Numbers are explained in paragraphs 2.230 to 2.24

4 Another common way of referring back to something is to use a specific determiner such as 'the' or 'its' in front of a noun.

A man and a woman were struggling up the dune. The man wore shorts, a T-shirt, and basketball sneakers. The woman wore a print dress.

'Thanks,' said Brody. He hung up, turned out the light in his office and walked out to his car.

Specific determiners are explained in paragraphs 1.162 to 1.20 Some general determiners can also be used to refer back to something.

A dog was running around in the yard. Soon another dog appeared.

Here is a list of general determiners used to refer back to something:

These are explained fully in paragraphs 1.221 to 1.23

5 As indicated above, pronouns and determiners used to refer back are explained in Chapter 1, where other pronouns and determiners are explained. The demonstratives 'this' and that' are used to refer back to whole sentences and sections of text as well as to things, so all their cohesive uses are set out in the following section (paragraphs 7 to 17), which also explains other words which are used to refer back in a specific way.

6 There are also several other ways of referring back to something that has already been mentioned. These involve

the use of various nouns to refer back to sections of text

These are explained in paragraphs 18 to 23.

the use of 'so' and 'not' as substitutes for several types of word or structure which you want to avoid repeating

This use of 'so' and 'not' is explained in paragraphs 24 to 2

the use of 'such', adjectives, and adjuncts to make comparisons with things that have already been mentioned

This is explained in paragraphs 28 to 40.

Referring back in a specific way

7 'This' and 'that', and the plural forms 'these' and 'those', are used to refer back clearly to a thing or fact that has just been mentioned.

They can be used both as pronouns and as determiners.

More and more money is being pumped into the educational system, and it is reasonable to assume this will continue.

In 1973 he went on a caravan holiday. At the beginning of this holiday he began to experience pain in his chest.

Note that 'this' and 'that' are not very often used as pronouns to refer to people. When they are used like this, they are only used in front of the verb 'be'.

'It was here that one young prisoner was sold for a bag of corn,' said the old woman. 'That was me'.

8 When you use 'this' or 'these', you are linking yourself with the thing you are referring to.

The concert began with his Second Piano Sonata. This is a work that has usually been considered as fundamentally negative.

After you've set your goals, remember them by using a list. Anything that is worth doing should go on this list.

Only small pines are left. Many of these have twisted and stunted shapes.

There were great quantities of cattle at Camusfearna that year. The majority of these beasts were black.

In contrast, when you use 'that' or 'those', you are distancing yourself slightly from the thing you are referring to.

There's a lot of material there. You can use some of that.

There's one boss and that boss is in France.

There were only strangers around to observe him, and not many of those.

The rooms are inhabited by boys from twelve to sixteen years of age. The majority of those boys have reached the stage of caring for comfort and decorations.

9 Although 'this' and 'that' are singular pronouns, you can use them to refer back to a number of things or facts that have just been mentioned, instead of using a plural pronoun.

Later, computer systems were brought into play to draw up attack strategies: later yet, they found themselves riding along in aircraft, submarines, and tanks. At this had its beneficial aspects.

He had played rugby at school, had been in the army and had briefly been a professional footballer. That was thought to be to his favour when the job came up later.

demonstratives referring to sentences 10 Demonstratives can also be pronouns of determiners which refer back to an entire sentence or a number of sentences.

'You're the new doctor, aren't you?''That's right.'

'Were you worried about the disrespect for the law exhibited by your two heroes?''That's a hard question to answer.'

'I'll think about it, Mother.' That statement was the end of most of their discussions.

I accept neither of these arguments.

Note that when 'these' and 'those' are pronouns referring back to an entire statement they are only used in front of the verb 'be'.

It was hard for the to believe these were his real reasons for wanting to get rid of me.

I put my arms around her. 'Thanks, Ollie.' Those were here last words.

'previous' 11 You can also use the adjective 'previous' attributively to refer back to a section of text.

As explained in the previous chapter, the bottle needs only to be washed in a cold water.

I think we can now answer the question posed at the end of the previous chapter.

'above' 12 In written English you can also refer to what you have just mentioned by using 'above' as a modifier.

I have not been able to validate the above statement.

You can also use 'the above' without a noun group after it.

Keep supplies of rice and spaghetti. Also, to go with the above, Parmesan cheese and tins of tomatoes.

13 When you have just referred separately to two things or groups of things, you can refer to the first one as 'the former' and the second one as 'the latter'. These expressions are used mainly in formal English.

It used to be said that the oil exporting countries depended on the oil importing counties just as much as the latter depended on the former.

I could do one of two thingsobey him or get my own protection. I chose the latter.

'Former' and 'latter' can also be attributive adjectives.

The Gallery must be given a full chapter or just a brief paragraph, and space forbids the former alternative.

Guy had studied classics and philosophy at Oxford and always felt a sort of lingering interest in the latter subject.

14 When you want to refer generally to a whole class of things like the one that has been mentioned, you can say 'things of this kind' or 'things of that kind'. Alternatively you can say 'this kind of thing' or 'that kind of thing'.

We'll need a special new terminal to incorporate customs facilities, immigration facilities, and things of that kind.

Most of us would attach a great deal of importance to considerations of this kind.

I don't see many advantages in that kind of education.

An arts theatres have that type of problem.

If you are referring to things of two or more kinds, you use 'these' and 'those' in front of 'kinds', 'sorts', or 'types', followed by 'of' and a noun.

Both these countries want to reduce the production of these kinds of weapons.

There are specific regulations governing these types of machines.

Outsiders aren't supposed to make those kinds of jokes.

You can also use 'such' to refer back to things of a type that has just been mentioned. This is explained in paragraphs 28 to 32.

15 The adverb 'then' is used to refer back to the time that has just been mentioned or discussed.

In ancient times poetry was a real force in the world. Of course the world was different then.

16 The adverb 'there' is used to refer back to the place that has just been mentioned.

I decided to try Newmarket. I soon found a job there.

I hurried back into the kitchen. There was nothing there.

17 After describing a way of doing something way in which something happens, you can refer back to it using the adverb 'thus'. 'Thus' is a formal word.

Eventually with a groan of good nature he gave in. There was, as a matter of fact, even something pleasing to him in thus giving in.

It not only pleased him to work with them, but the few pence thus earned gave him an enormous sense of importance.

Note that 'in this way' or 'in that way' are commonly used instead.

More and more people will turn to cheques and credit cards for the majority of their purchases. Many people in the Western world already do the bulk of their purchasing in this way.

Referring back in a general way

18 There are various groups of nouns which are used to refer back in a general way to what has already been said. They refer to whole sections of spoken or written text.

referring to spoken or written texts 19 You can often refer back to what has already been said in a text by using a noun which classes it as a type of verbal action, for example an admission, suggestion, or question.

'Martin, what are you going to do?''That's a good question, Larry.'

'You claim to know this man's identity?''I do.''You can substantiate this claim?'

The noun that you use to refer back like this not only refers to the test but also shows your feelings about it. For example, if you refer back to someone's reply to something using the noun 'response', this shows that your feelings about it are quite neutral, whereas if you use the noun 'retort', this shows that your feelings about the reply are much stronger.

Here is a list of nouns which refer back to texts, classing them as types of verbal action:

Note that many of these nouns are related to reporting verbs. Reporting verbs are explained in Chapter

People will feel the need to be informed and they will go wherever they can to get this information.

'I don't know what we should do about that.' This remark had the effect of totally dumbfounding the audience.

The Chancellor remarked that he had no inferiority complex about the Soviet Union.

20 In the same way, you can also refer back to ideas that you know or think someone has by using a noun which also indicates your feelings about the ideas. For example, if you refer to someone's idea using the noun 'view', this shows that your feelings about it are quite neutral, whereas if you use the noun 'delusion', this shows that your feelings are stronger.

The unemployment in the rural areas is often thought to be due entirely to population growth, and no doubt this is an important factor. But those who hold this view still have to explain why additional people cannot do additional work.

'There is nothing to cry for. They cannot keep me there against my will.' Secure in this belief, he hugged her reassuringly and followed the servants out.

Here is a list of nouns which refer to ideas and show your feelings about the ideas:

21 You can also refer back to actions and events using nouns which show your feelings about the action or event. For example, if you use the noun 'incident' to refer to an accident at a nuclear power station, this appears to simply describe the event, whereas if you use the noun 'disaster', this shows your reaction to the event.

There might bean uncomfortable moment or two when Gwen learned of his intention, but she was not the kind to make a fuss. In any event, he could handle the situation, which would not be a new one.

I believed the press would cooperate on this issue.

Parents may complain that their child eats badly at meals but is always begging for food between meals. This problem doesn't arise because the parents have been lenient about food between meals.

He entered his name for the Boxing Day race, which to Belinda's delight he subsequently won. She seemed for some reason to regard the exploit as reflecting credit on herself.

Here is a list of nouns which refer to events and are neutral:

Here is a list of nouns which refer to events and show your feelings about them:

PRODUCTIVE FEATURE 22 When you are referring back to something that has been said or mentioned, you can use almost any noun which refers to texts, ideas, events, and sometimes even to people. The noun you use allows you to express your exact reaction to the thing which is being referred to. For example, you can refer to a football defeat using nouns such as 'tragedy' or 'farce', and you can refer to an argument using nouns such as 'wrangle' and 'battle'. This is a productive feature of English. Productive features are explained in the Introduction.

referring to pieces of writing 23 You can refer in a neutral way to a previous piece of writing.

As explained in the previous paragraph, the bottle needs only to be washed clean.

We have seen in this chapter how the tax burden has increased fastest for households with children.

Here is a list of nouns used to refer to a piece of writing:

Substituting for something already mentioned: using 'so' and 'not'

'so' as substitute complement 24 'So' is sometimes used in formal English as a substitute for a complement that has already been mentioned of implied.

They are wildly inefficient and will remain so for some time to come.

Undaunted by his first setbacks, perhaps stubbornly so, he lashed his mechanics to greater efforts.

Its impact was enormous everywhere but nowhere more so than in the Soviet Union.

'so' and 'not' after 'if' 25 'So' is used to substitute for a clause after 'if', when the action or situation you are talking about has already been mentioned.

Will that be enough? If so, do not ask for more.

'Not' is used to substitute for a negative clause, to imply the opposite situation to the one already mentioned.

You will probably have one of the two documents mentioned below. If not, you will have to buy one.

'so' and 'not' with reporting verbs 26 'So' and 'not' are also used to substitute for clauses after some common reporting verbs. They are also used after the expression 'I'm afraid', which is used to report an unwelcome fact.

'Are you all right?''I think so.'

You're a sensible womanI've always said so.

'You think he's dead, don't you?''I'm afraid so, Sally.'

'It doesn't often happen.''No, I suppose not.'

'You haven't lost the ticket, have you?''I hope not.'

Here is a list of reporting verbs which can be followed by 'so' and 'not':

Note that the use of 'not' as a substitute with 'think', 'expect', and 'believe' is rare or formal. Also, 'not' is not used with 'tell', and when it is occasionally used with 'say', there is a modal in front of 'say'.

Occasionally 'so' is put at the beginning of the clause. This often has the effect of casting doubt on the truth of the fact involved.

Everybody in the world, so they say, has a double.

'So' can also be used at the beginning of a clause for emphasis. This is explained in paragraph 10.8

27 'Do so' is used to mean 'perform the action just mentioned'. The various forms of the verb 'do' can be used. This structure is rather formal.

A signal which should have turned to red failed to do so.

Most of those who signed the letter did so because of her involvement.

She asked him to wait while she considered. He did so.

British governments are perfectly capable of improving drinking water quality, and perhaps they should voluntary have done so before now.

Comparing with something already mentioned

28 The word 'such' can be used in several ways to provide cohesion. You use it when you want to indicate ways to provide that something is of the same sort as something that has already been mentioned. The re grammatical patterns of 'such' are unique. It can behave as a determiner, a, and an adjective.

29 'Such' can be a determiner referring back to something that has already been mentioned.

Some 60% of the state's electricity comes from burning imported oil, the highest use of such fuel in the country.

New business on a small scale has been found to provide the great majority of new jobs. By their nature such business take risks.

30 'Such' can be a predeterminer (see paragraph 1.236) referring to something that has already been mentioned. It comes in front of the determiner 'a' or 'an'.

They lasted for hundreds of years. On a human time scale, such a period seems an eternity.

On one occasion the school parliament discussed the dismissal of a teacher. But such an event is rare.

31 'Such' can be an adjective referring back to something that has already been mentioned.

To meet the demand there are now many new agencies providing mainly female cooks to cater for the boardrooms. One such agency, M and N, has about a hundred upper class girls on its books.

Not only did he fail to admit the impropriety of his behaviour, he actually pretended that he had hadn't done any such thing.

Mr Bell's clubs were privately owned. Like most such clubs everywhere, they were organizations of congenial people who shared a certain interest.

I hated the big formal dances and felt very awkward and out of place at the one or two such events I attended.

32 'Such' is also sometimes used as a headword after 'one' and 'many' informal usage.

So many advocates of freedom have not got their feet on the ground. One such protested to the recently because I shouted sternly at a problem boy of seven.

It is not surprising that people are prepared to envisage radical alternatives. Many such have been proposed in the last few years.

adjectives 33 There are a number of adjectives which are used to indicate a comparison, contrast, or connection with something that has already been mentioned.

'same' 34 The adjective 'same' is used attributively to indicate emphatically that you are referring back to something that has just been mentioned.

We accept that thought is a common property of the human race. But we cannot make the same assumption about machines.

The door opened and a man popped his head into the room and said 'Next please'. About ten minutes later, the same man returned.

He watched her climb into a compartment of the train and he chose the same one so as to watch her more closely.

Note that when 'same' is used attributively, it nearly always follows 'the', but it can occasionally follow other specific determiners.

These same smells may produce depression in others.

35 'Same' can also be the complement of a link verb when you want to indicate that something is similar in every way to something that has just been mentioned. When 'same' is used after a link verb it always follows 'the'.

The Queen treated us very well. The Princess Royal was just the same.

My brothers and myself were very poor, but so happy. I think other families were the same.

36 You can also use 'the same' without a following noun as the subject or object of a clause, to refer back to something that has just been mentioned.

The conversion process is inefficient and about two-thirds of the energy is wasted. The same is true of nuclear power station.

'I've never heard of him.''I wish I could say the same.'

'The same thing' can be used exactly like 'the same', as a subject or object.

He was stopped and send back to get a ticket. On the return journey the same thing happened.

I learnt how to kill people with my bare hands. And I'm not proud of the fact that I taught a number of other people to do the same thing.

37 The adjectives 'opposite' and 'reverse' are used to indicate that something is as different as possible from the thing that has already been mentioned. They usually follow 'the'.

It was designed to impress, but probably had the oppose effect.

I don't do a lot of reading but my brother is just the opposite.

In the past ten years I think we've seen the reverse process.

This time the position is the reverse.

When 'opposite' is used attributively, it occasionally follows 'an'.

Others of the same period took an opposite view.

You can sometimes use 'the opposite' and 'the reverse' without a following noun to refer back to something.

I once heard a police commissioner say that we would have to learn to live with crime. The opposite is true; we have to learn not to live with crime.

He has an excellent record of saying one thing and doing the opposite.

We have gained better health by exchanging fat for more efficient muscles. The reverse is also true.

It hasn't happened. The reverse has happened.

38 You can also use a variety of other adjectives to indicate that something is similar to, different from, or connected with something that has already been mentioned. Some of these adjectives are only used attributively and others can also be complements of a link verb.

It's really fabulous. Do you think that there are any other comparable tombs left at all?

She wore a red dress with a red matching straw hat.

West Germany, Denmark and Italy face declines in young people. Ireland is confronted with a contrasting problem.

That's what I would say. But his attitude was different altogether.

Here is a list of adjectives which can only be used attributively to refer back:

Here is a list of adjectives which can be used both attributively and as complements to refer back:

39 To indicate that an action or a way of doing something is similar to the one just mentioned, you can use the adjuncts 'in the same way', 'in a similar way', 'similarly', or 'likewise'.

She spoke of Jim and Karl tolerantly but with frowns and sighs. And presumably she spoke to them of me in the same way.

As the children surged silently around them, the soldiers glanced along the line to see their colleagues similarly surrounded.

40 To indicate that an action or a way of doing something is different from the one just described, you can use the adjuncts 'otherwise' and 'differently'.

I thought life was simply splendid, I had no reason to think otherwise.

She had been ashamed of her actions but she had been totally incapable of doing otherwise.

The British have been slow off the mark. They do things differently in America.