Reporting in your own words: report structures - Reporting statements and thoughts

Reporting in your own words: report structures

24 When you report what people have said using your own words rather than the words they actually used, you use a report structure.

The woman said she had seen nothing.

I replied that I had not read it yet.

You usually use a report structure when you report what someone thinks.

He thought she was worried.

Report structures are sometimes called indirect speech. A report structure consists of two parts. One part is the reporting clause, which contains the reporting verb.

I told him that nothing was going to happen to me.

I have agreed that he should do it.

I wanted to be alone.

The other part is the reported clause.

I could have answered that my mind was open.

He felt that he had to do something.

He wondered where they could have come from.

You usually put the reporting clause first, in order to make it clear that you are reporting rather than speaking directly yourself.

Henry said that he wanted to go home.

The exact words that Henry used are unlikely to have been 'I want to go home', although they might have been. It is more likely that he said something like 'I think I should be going now'. You are more likely to report what he meant rather than what he actually said.

There are many reasons why you do not quote a person's exact words. Often you cannot remember exactly what was said. At other times, the exact words are not important or not appropriate in the situation in which you are reporting.

25 There are several types of reported clause. The type you use depends on whether you are reporting a statement, a question, an order, or a suggestion.

Most reported clauses either are 'that'-clauses or begin with a 'to'-infinitive. When a question is being reported, the reported clause begins with 'if', 'whether', or a 'wh'-word. The use of 'that'-clauses as reported clauses is discussed in paragraphs 26 to 28. Reported questions are discussed in paragraphs 29 to 3 The use of 'to'-infinitive clauses in report structures is discussed in paragraphs 36 to 4

Reporting statements and thoughts

26 If you warn to report a statement or someone's thoughts, you use a reported clause beginning with the conjunction 'that'.

He said that the police had directed him to the wrong room.

He wrote me a letter saying that he understood what I was doing.

Mrs Kaul announced that the lecture would now begin.

In informal speech and writing, the conjunction 'that' is commonly omitted.

They said I had to see a doctor first.

She says she wants to see you this afternoon.

He knew the attempt was hopeless.

I think there's something wrong.

In each of these sentences, 'that' could have been used. For example, you can say either 'They said I had to see a doctor first' or 'They said that I had to see a doctor first'.

'That' is often omitted when the reporting verb refers simply to the act of saying or thinking. You usually include 'that' after a verb which gives more information, such as 'complain' or 'explain'.

His brother complained that the office was not businesslike.

I explained that she would have to stay in bed.

This kind of reported clause is often called a 'that'-clause, even though many occur without 'that'.

Note that some relative clauses also begin with 'that'. In these clauses 'that' is a relative pronoun, not a conjunction. Relative clauses are explained in paragraphs 8.83 to 8.11

verbs used with 'that'-clauses 27 Here is a list of verbs which are often used as reporting verbs with 'that'-clauses:

Note that some of these verbs are only used in report structures in some of their senses. For example, if you say 'He accepted a present' you are using 'accept' as an ordinary transitive verb.

A few of these verbs can or must be used with an object referring to the hearer. See paragraphs 71 to 72.

Some of these verbs, such as 'decide' and 'promise', can also be used with a 'to'-infinitive clause. See paragraphs 36 and 42.

Some other verbs, such as 'advise' and 'order', can be used as reporting verbs with 'that'-clauses only if the 'that'-clause contains a modal or a subjunctive. 'That'-clauses of this kind are discussed in paragraph 40.

position of reported clauses 28 You usually put the reporting clause before the 'that'-clause, in order to make it clear that you are reporting rather than speaking directly yourself.

I said that I would rather work in the forest.

Georgina said she was going to bed.

However, if you want to emphasize the statement contained in the reported clause, you can alter the order and put the reported clause first, with a comma after it. You do not use 'that' to introduce the clause.

All these things were trivial, he said.

She was worried, he thought.

If the reported clause is long, you can put the reporting clause in the middle.

Ten years ago, Moumoni explained, some government people had come to inspect the village.

Reporting questions

29 As well as reporting what someone says or thinks, you can also report a question that they ask or wonder about.

Questions in report structures are sometimes called reported questions or indirect questions.

30 The reporting verb most often used for reporting questions is 'ask' Questions can be reported in a more formal way using 'enquire' or 'inquire'.

I asked if I could stay with them.

He asked me where I was going.

She inquired how Ibrahim was getting on.

31 When you report a question:

you do not treat it as a question by using interrogative word order

you do not use a question mark.

So the question 'Did you enjoy it?' could be reported: 'I asked her if she had enjoyed it'.

Questions are explained in paragraphs 10 to 30.

32 There are two main types of question, and so two main types of report structure for questions.

One type of question is called a 'yes/no' question. These are questions which can be answered simply with 'yes' or 'no'.

When you report a 'yes/no' question, you use an 'if'-clause beginning with the conjunction 'if', or a 'whether'-clause beginning with the conjunction 'whether'.

You use 'if' when the speaker has suggested one possibility that may be true. 'Do you know my name?' could be reported as 'A woman asked if I knew her name'.

She asked him if his parents spoke French.

Someone asked me if the work was going well.

He inquired if her hair had always been that colour.

You use 'whether' when the speaker has suggested one possibility but has left open the question of their possibilities. After 'whether', you can suggest another possibility, or you can leave it unstated.

I was asked whether I wanted to stay at hotel or at his home.

She asked whether the servants were still there.

I asked Professor Fred Bailey whether he agreed.

A policeman asked me whether he could be of  help.

Sometimes the alternative possibility is represented by 'or not'.

The barman didn't ask whether or not they were over eighteen.

They asked whether Britain was or was not a Christian country.

For more information about 'yes/no' questions, see paragraphs 12 to 1

33 There are a few other verbs which can be used before 'if'-clauses or 'whether'-clauses, because they refer to being unsure of facts or to discovering facts.

I didn't know whether to believe him or not.

Simon wondered if he should make conversation.

She didn't say whether he was still alive.

Here is a list of other verbs which can be used before 'if'-clauses and 'whether'-clauses:

Note that 'know', 'remember', 'say', and 'see' are usually used in a negative or interrogative clause, or a clause with a modal.

All the verbs in the list, except 'wonder', can also be used with 'that'-clauses: see paragraph 2 They can all also be used with clauses beginning with 'wh'-words: see paragraph 3

'wh'-questions 34 The other type of question is called a 'wh'-question. These are questions in which someone asks for information about an event or situation. 'Wh'-questions cannot be answered with 'yes' or 'no'.

When you report a 'wh'-question, you use a 'wh'-word at the beginning of the reported clause.

He asked where I was going.

She enquired why l was so late.

She leaned over the stairs and called down to ask what had happened.

I asked how they liked the film.

It never occurred to me to ask who put it there.

When the details of the question are clear from the context, you can sometimes leave out everything except the 'wh'-word. This happens mostly in spoken English, especially with 'why'.

I asked why.

They enquired how.

For more information about 'wh'-questions see paragraphs 17 to 30.

35 Other verbs can be used before clauses beginning with 'wh'-words, because they refer to knowing, learning, or mentioning one of the circumstances of an event or situation.

She doesn't know what we were talking about.

They couldn't see how they would manage without her.

I wonder what's happened.

Here is a list of other verbs which can be used before clauses beginning with 'wh'-words:

Note that 'imagine', 'say', 'see', 'suggest', and 'think' are usually used in a negative or interrogative clause, or a clause with a modal.

All the verbs in the list, except 'describe', 'discuss', and 'wonder', can also be used with 'that'-clauses: see paragraph 2

Reporting orders, requests, advice, and intentions

36 If someone orders, requests, or advises someone else to do something, this can be reported by using a 'to'-infinitive clause after a reporting verb such as 'tell'. The person being addressed, who is to perform the action, is mentioned as the object of the reporting verb.

Johnson told her to wake him up.

He commanded me to stay there.

He ordered me to fetch the books.

My doctor advised me to see a neurologist.

This is a type of phase structure (see paragraphs 3.203 and 3.207).

Here is a list of reporting verbs which can be used with a person as object followed by a 'to'-infinitive clause:

37 A few verbs can be used with a 'to'-infinitive clause to report requests when the nearer is mentioned in a prepositional phrase.

An officer shouted to us to stop all the noise.

l pleaded with him to tell me.

Here is a list of these verbs and the prepositions used with them:

38 In ordinary conversation, requests are often put in the form of a question. For example, you might say 'Will you help me?' instead of 'Help me'. Similarly, reported requests often look like reported questions.

People ask me if can lend them fifty dollars.

When you report a request like this, you can mention both the person receiving it and the person making it.

He asked me whether I would help him.

Alternatively, you can just mention the person making it.

He asked if I would answer some questions.

39 You can report a request in which someone asks if they can do something by using a 'to'-infinitive clause after 'ask' or 'demand'.

I asked to see the manager.

40 When someone makes a suggestion about what someone else, not their hearer, should do, you report it by using a 'that'-clause. This clause often contains a modal, usually 'should'.

He proposes that the Government should hold an inquiry.

It was definite enough for a doctor to advise that she should have treatment.

Note that this structure can also be used to report a suggestion about what the hearer should do. Consider the example: 'Her father had suggested that she ought to see a doctor'; her father might have suggested it directly to her.

If you do not use a modal, the result is more formal.

Someone suggested that they break into small groups.

Note that when you leave out the modal, the verb in the reported clause still has the form it would have if the modal were present. This use of the base form is sometimes called the subjunctive.

It was his doctor who advised that he change his job.

I suggested that he bring them all up to the house.

He urges that the restrictions be lifted.

Here is a list of reporting verbs which can be followed by a 'that'-clause containing a modal or a subjunctive:

Note that 'advise', 'ask', 'beg', 'command', 'order', and 'urge' can also be used with an object and a 'to'-infinitive, and 'agree', 'pray', and 'suggest' can also be used with 'that'-clauses without a modal.

41 When someone makes a suggestion about what someone else should do, or about what they themselves and someone else should do, you can report this using one of the reporting verbs 'suggest', 'advise', 'propose', or 'recommend' with a non-finite clause beginning with a present participle.

Barbara suggested going to another coffee-house.

Deirdre proposed moving to New York.

reporting intentions and hopes 42 When you are reporting an action that the speaker (the subject of the reporting verb) intends to perform, you can report it in two ways. You can either report it simply as an action, using a 'to'-infinitive clause, or you can report it as a statement or fact, using a 'that'-clause.

For example, promises relate to actions (eg 'He promised to phone her') but they can also be seen as relating to facts (eg 'He promised that he would phone her').

The verb group in the 'that'-clause always contains a modal.

I promised to come back.

She promised that she would not leave hospital until she was better.

I decided to withhold the information till later.

She decider that she would leave her money to him.

I had vowed to fight for their freedom.

He vowed that he would ride at my side into Mexico.

Here is a list of verbs which can be used either with a 'to'-infinitive clause or with a 'that'-clause containing a modal:

43 'Claim' and 'pretend' can also be used with these two structures when you are saying that someone is claiming or pretending something about himself or herself. For example, 'He claimed to be a genius' has the same meaning as 'He claimed that he was a genius'.

He claimed to have witnessed the accident.

He claimed that he had found the money in the forest.

Note that the infinitive in the 'to'-infinitive clause can be a perfect infinitive, referring to a past event or situation.

44 Note that a few verbs which indicate personal intentions can only be used with a 'to'-infinitive clause.

I intend to say nothing for the present.

They are planning to move to the country.

I don't want to die yet.

Here is a list of these verbs:

45 When you are reporting an action that someone is wondering about doing themselves, you can use a 'to'-infinitive clause beginning with 'whether'.

I've been wondering whether to retire.

He didn't know whether to feel glad or sorry at his dismissal.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used with 'to'-infinitive clauses of this kind:

Note that 'choose', 'decide' and 'know' are usually used in a negative or interrogative clause, or a clause with a modal.

When you are mentioning information about something involved in an action, you can use a 'to'-infinitive clause after a 'wh'-word as the reported clause.

I asked him what to do.

I shall teach you how to cook.

Here is a list of verbs which can be used with 'to'-infinitive clauses of this kind:

As an alternative to both kinds of 'to'-infinitive clause, you can use a clause containing 'should'.

I wondered whether I should call for help.

He began to wonder what he should do now.

All the verbs in the above lists, except 'choose' and 'debate', can also be used with ordinary clauses beginning with 'whether' or 'wh'-words. See paragraphs 32 to 3

Time reference in report structures

46 This section explains how to show time reference in report structures.

past tense for both verbs 47 When you use a report structure, you are usually reporting something that was said or believed in the past. Both the reporting verb and the verb in the reported clause are therefore usually in a past tense.

She said you threw away her sweets.

Brody asked what happened.

In the Middle Ages, people thought the world was flat.

reporting verb in other tenses 48 If you are reporting something that someone says or believes at the time that you are speaking, you use a present tense of the reporting verb.

Experts say that you should be precise in your accounting.

I think it's going to rain.

However, you can also use a present tense of the reporting verb when you are reporting something said in the past, especially if you are reporting something that someone often says or that is still true.

She says she wants to see you this afternoon.

My doctor says it's nothing to worry about.

If you are predicting what people will say or think, you use a future tense of the reporting verb.

No doubt he will claim that his car broke down.

They will think we are making a fuss.

tense of verb in reported clause 49 Whatever the tense of your reporting verb, you put the verb in the reported clause into a tense that is appropriate at the time that you are speaking.

If the event or situation described in the reported clause is in the past at the time that you are speaking, you use the simple past tense, the past continuous, or the present perfect: 'She said she enjoyed the course', 'She said she was enjoying the course' or 'She said she has enjoyed the course'. See Chapter 5 for information on when to use these tenses.

Dad explained that he had no money.

She added that she was smoking too much.

He says he has never seen a live shark in his life.

However, when the reporting verb is in a past tense, a past tense is also usually used for the verb in the reported clause even if the reported situation still exists. For example, you could say 'I told him I was eighteen' even if you are still eighteen. You are concentrating on the situation at the past time that you are talking about.

He said he was English.

A present tense is sometimes used instead, to emphasize that the situation still exists.

I told him that I don't drink more than anyone else.

If the event or situation was fn the past at the time that the reported statement was made, or had existed up to that time, you use the past perfect tense: 'She said she had enjoyed the course.'

He knew he had behaved badly.

Mr Benn said that he had been in hospital at the time.

If the event or situation is still going on, you use a present tense if you are using a present tense of the reporting verb: 'She says she's enjoying the course.'

Don't assume I'm a complete fool.

He knows he's being watched.

If the event or situation was in the future at the time of the statement or is still in the future, you use a modal. See paragraphs 50 to 53, below.

50 The basic rules for using modals in reported clauses are as follows.

If the verb in the reporting clause is in a past tense or has 'could' or 'would' as an auxiliary, you usually use 'could', 'might', or 'would' in the reported clause.

If, as is less common, the verb in the reporting clause is in a present tense or has 'can' or 'will' as an auxiliary, you usually use 'can', 'may', or 'would' in the reported clause.

51 When you want to report a statement or question about someone's ability to do something, you normally use 'could'.

They believed that war could be avoided.

Nell would not admit that she could not cope.

If you want to report a statement about possibility, you normally use 'might'.

They told me it might flood here.

He said you might need money.

If the possibility is a strong one, you use 'must'.

I told her she must be out of her mind.

When you want to report a statement giving permission or a request for permission, you normally use 'could'. 'Might' is used in more formal English.

I told him he couldn't have it.

Madeleine asked if she might borrow a pen and some paper.

When you want to report a prediction, promise, or expectation, or a question about the future, you normally use 'would'.

She said they would all miss us.

He insisted that reforms would save the system, not destroy it.

52 If the reported event or situation still exists or is still in the future, and you are using a present tense of the reporting verb, you use 'can' instead of 'could', 'may' instead of 'might', and 'will' or 'shall' instead of 'would'.

Helen said I can share her flat.

I think some of the sheep may die this year.

I don't believe he will come.

Note that you cannot use 'can have' instead of 'could have', or 'will have' instead of 'would have'. You cannot use 'may have' instead of 'might have' if you are using it like 'could have' to talk about something that did not happen.

You can also use 'can', 'may', 'will', and 'shall' when you are using a past tense of the reporting verb, if you want to emphasize that the situation still exists or is still in the future.

He claimed that a child's early experiences of being separated from his mother may cause psychological distress in later life.

If you are using a present reporting verb and want to indicate that the reported event or situation is hypothetical or very unlikely, you can use the modals 'could', 'might', or 'would'.

I believe that I could live very comfortably here.

53 When you want to report a statement about obligation, it is possible to use 'must', but the expression 'had to' (see paragraph 248) is more common.

He said he really had to go back inside.

Sita told him that he must be especially kind to the little girl.

You use 'have to', 'has to', or 'must' if the reported situation still exists or is in the future.

When you want to report a statement prohibiting something, you normally use 'mustn't'.

He said they mustn't get us into trouble.

When you want to report a strong recommendation, you can use 'ought to'. You can also use 'should'.

He knew he ought to be helping Harold.

I felt I should consult my family.

54 When you want to report a habitual past action or a past situation, you can use the semi-modal 'used to'.

I wish I knew what his favourite dishes used to be.

55 The use of modals in reported clauses can be compared with the ordinary use of modals (see paragraphs 95 to 262). Many of the functions are similar, but some are rarely or never found in reporter clauses.

reporting conditional statements 56 When you are reporting a conditional statement, the tenses of the verbs are, in most cases, the same as they would be normally. However, they are different if you are using the simple past tense of a reporting verb, and reporting a conditional statement such as 'If there is no water in the radiator, the engine will overheat'. In this case, you can use the simple past instead of the simple present and 'would' in stead of 'will' in the reported conditional statement: 'She said that if there was no water in the radiator, the engine would overheat'.

For information about conditional statements, see paragraphs 8.25 to 8.42.

Making your reference appropriate

57 People, things, times, and places can be referred to in different ways, depending on who is speaking or on when or where they are speaking. For example, the same person can be referred to as 'I', 'you', or 'she', and the same place can be referred to as 'over there' or 'just here'.

If you use a report structure to report what someone has said, the words you use to refer to things must be appropriate in relation to yourself, the time when you are speaking, and the place in which you are speaking. The words you use may well be different from the words originally spoken, which were appropriate from the point of view of the speaker at the time.

58 For example, if a man is talking to someone about a woman called Jenny, and he says, 'I saw her in the High Street', there area a number of ways in which this statement can be reported. If the original speaker repeats what he said, he could say, 'I said I saw her in the High Street.' 'I' and 'her' do not change, because they still refer to the same people.

If the original listener reports what was said, he or she could say, 'He said he saw her in the High Street.' 'I' becomes 'he', because the statements reported from the point of view of a third person, not from the point of view of the original speaker.

If the original listener reports the statement to Jenny, 'her' becomes 'you': 'He said he saw you in the High Street'.

The original listener might report the statement to the original speaker. This time, 'I' has to change to 'you': 'You said you saw her in the High Street'.

You're crazy.

I told him he was crazy.

Possessive determiners and pronouns change in the same way as personal pronouns in order to keep the same reference. So the following sentences could all report the same question: 'She asked if he was my brother', 'She asked if you were my brother', 'I asked if he was her brother.' The original question might have been expressed as 'Is he your brother?'

59 When reporting, you may need to change adjuncts of time such as 'today', 'yesterday' or 'next week'.

For example, if someone called Jill says 'I will come tomorrow', you could report this statement the following day as 'Jill said she would come today'. At a later time, you could report the same statement as 'Jill said she would come the next day' or 'Jill said she would come the following day'.

We decided to leave the city the next day.

I was afraid people might think I'd been asleep during the previous twenty-four hours.

60 You may need to change words which relate to position of place.

For example, if you are talking to a man about a restaurant, he might say 'I go there every day'. If you report his statement while you are actually the restaurant, you could say 'He said he comes here every day'.

Using reporting verbs for politeness

61 Reporting verbs are often used to say something in a polite way.

62 If you want to contradict someone or to say something which might be unwelcome to them, you can avoid sounding rude by using a reporting verb such as 'think' or 'believe'.

I think it's time we stopped.

I don't think that will be necessary.

I believe you ought to leave now.

Alternatively, you can make the reporting clause into a negative question.

Don't you think we'd better wait and see?

Don't you think you'd better slow down?

For more information on the use of reporting verbs to decrease the strength of a statement, see the section on performative verbs in Chapter 10 (10.102 to 10.105).

'suppose' and 'wonder' 63 You can use 'suppose' and 'wonder' to introduce polite requests. When you use 'suppose' like this, you can make either the reporting clause or the reported clause negative.

I wonder if you've got any books on linguistics?

I suppose you couldn't just stay an hour or two longer?

I don't suppose you'd be prepared to stay in Edinburgh?

Avoiding mention of the person speaking or thinking

64 There are a number of report structures which you can use if you want to avoid saying whose opinion or statement you are giving.

use of passives to express general beliefs 65 If you want to indicate or imply that something is an opinion which is held by an unspecified group of people, you can use a passive form of a reporting verb with 'it' as the impersonal subject.

It is assumed that the government will remain in power.

In former times it was believed that an enlarged tonsils should be removed.

It is now believed that foreign languages are most easily taught to young children.

It was said that he could speak their language.

Here is a list of reporting verbs which are used in the passive with 'it' as their subject:

This structure has much in common with a phase structure using a passive reporting verb and a 'to'-infinitive clause. In the phase structure, the main person or thing involved in the reported opinion is put as the subject of the reporting verb.

Intelligence is assumed to be important.

He is said to have died a natural death.

He is believed to have fled to France.

Note that the 'to'-infinitive is most commonly 'be' or 'have', or a perfect infinitive.

Here is a list of reporting verbs, from the list above, which are also used in the phase structure:

66 If you want to say that something appears to be the case, you can use either of the verbs 'seem' and 'appear'. These verbs can be used as reporting verbs followed by a 'that'-clause or they can be used with a 'to'-infinitive clause. You can be giving your own opinion or that of someone else.

If you want to mention an apparent fact you can use 'seem' or 'appear', followed by a 'that'-clause. The subject of 'seem' or 'appear' is 'it', used impersonally.

It seemed that she had not been careful enough.

It seemed that he had lost his chance to win.

It appears that he followed my advice.

Alternatively, you can use a phase structure involving 'seem' or 'appear' and a 'to'-infinitive clause. The main person or thing involved in the fact that appears to be true is put as the subject of the reporting verb.

She seemed to like me.

He appears to have been an interesting man.

The system appears to work impartially.

If you want to mention the person whose viewpoint you are giving, you can add a prepositional phrase beginning with 'to' after 'seem' or 'appear'.

It seemed to him that I was not yet suitable.

It seems to me to be a remarkable pronouncement.

67 There are a few expressions containing impersonal 'if' which are used as reporting clauses before 'that'-clauses to indicate that someone suddenly thought of something: 'It occurred to me', 'It struck me', and 'It crossed my mind'.

It occurred to him that he hadn't eaten anything since the night before his capture.

It crossed my mind that somebody must have been keeping things secret.

Referring to the speaker and hearer

68 You usually use a reporting verb to report what one person has said or thought, so the subject of a reporting verb is usually a singular noun.

Henry said that he wanted to go home.

He claimed his health had been checked several times at a clinic.

When you report the statements, opinions, orders, of questions of a group of people, you can use a plural noun or a collective noun as the subject of the reporting verb.

The judges demanded that the race be run again.

The committee also noted that this was not the first case of its kind.

When you report what was said on television or radio, or what is printed or written in a newspaper or other document, you can mention the source or means of communication as the subject of a reporting verb.

The newspaper said Scotland Yard was investigating the crime.

The letter argued that civil defence was an indispensable element of deterrence.

Note that you can also use 'say' with nouns such as 'sign', 'notice', 'clock', and 'map' as the subject.

a notice saying that on no account should the attendants be tipped.

A sign over the door said 'Dreamland Cafe'.

The road map said it was 210 kilometres to the French frontier.

use of the passive 69 As explained in paragraph 65, when you want to avoid mentioning the person who said something, you can use a reporting verb in the passive.

It was said that some of them had become insane.

He was said to be the oldest man in the firm.

If you want to avoid mentioning the person giving an order or giving advice, you use a passive reporting verb with the person who receives the order or advice as the subject of the clause.

Harriet was ordered to keep away from my room.

USAGE NOTE 70 If you want to distance yourself from a statement you are making, you can indicate that you are reporting what someone else has said by using a phrase beginning with 'according to', father than using a report structure.

According to Dime, he had strangled Jed in the course of a struggle .

referring to the hearer 71 After some reporting verbs that refer to speech, you have to mention the hearer as a direct object. 'Tell' is the most common of these verbs.

I told them you were at the dentist.

I informed her that I was unwell and could not come.

Smith persuaded them that they must support the strike.

You can use these verbs in the passive, with the hearer as the subject.

She had been told she could leave hospital.

Members had been informed that the purpose of the meeting was to elect a new chairman.

She was persuaded to look again.

Here is a list of reporting verbs which must have the hearer as the direct object when they are used with a 'that'-clause:

Here is a list of reporting verbs which must have the hearer as the direct object when they are used with a 'to'-infinitive clause:

72 After a few reporting verbs that refer to speech, you can choose whether or not to mention the hearer.

I promised that I would try to phone her.

I promised Myra I'd be home at seven.

The physicians warned that, without the operation, the child would die.

Thomas warned her that his mother was slightly deaf.

Here is a list of reporting verbs which can be used with or without the hearer as object when used with a 'that'-clause:

'Promise' can also be used with or without an object when it is used with a 'to'-infinitive clause. 'Ask' has to be used with an object when it is used with a 'to'-infinitive clause to report a request for the hearer to do something, but it is used without an object when the request is for permission to do something (see paragraphs 36 and 39).

73 With many other reporting verbs, if you want to mention the hearer, you do so in a prepositional phrase beginning with 'to'.

I explained to her that I had to go home.

'Margaret,' I said to her, 'I'm so glad you came.'

Here is a list of reporting verbs which are used with 'that'-clauses or quotes and which need the preposition 'to' if you mention the hearer:

'Propose' and 'swear' can also be used with a 'to'-infinitive clause, but not if you mention the hearer.

I swore to uphold the Constitution of the United States.

74 When you are describing a situation in which a speaker is speaking forcefully to a hearer, you can mention the hearer in a prepositional phrase beginning with 'at'.

The tall boy shouted at them, 'Choir! Stand still!'

'Where the devil have you come from?' he growled at her.

Here is a list of reporting verbs which are used to describe forceful speech. If you want to mention the hearer, you use a prepositional phrase beginning with 'at':

75 With verbs which describe situations where both the speaker and the hearer are involved in the speech activity, you can mention the hearer in a prepositional phrase beginning with 'with'.

He agreed with us that it would be better to have no break.

I argued with Rick that he was involved in a form of blackmail.

Here is a list of reporting verbs which take the preposition 'with' if you mention the hearer:

76 With verbs which describe situations where someone is getting information from someone or something, you use a prepositional phrase beginning with 'from' to mention the source of the information.

I discovered from her that a woman prisoner had killed herself.

Here is a list of reporting verbs where the source of the information is mentioned using 'from':

reflexive pronouns 77 A reflexive pronoun can be used as the object of a reporting verb or preposition in order to say what someone is thinking. For example, 'to say something to yourself' means to think it rather than to say it aloud.

I told myself that he was crazy.

I'll never possess anything, I said to myself.

Other ways of indicating what is said

objects with reporting verbs 78 Sometimes you use a noun such as 'question', 'story', or 'apology' to refer to what someone has said or written. You can use a reporting verb with one of these nouns as its object instead of a reported clause.

He asked a number of questions.

Simon whispered his answer.

He told funny stories and made everyone laugh.

Philip repeated his invitation.

Here is a list of reporting verbs which are often used with nouns that refer to something spoken or written:

79 Some reporting verbs can have as their objects nouns that refer to events or facts. These nouns are often closely related to verbs. For example, 'loss' is closely related to 'lose', and instead of saying 'He admitted that he had lost his passport', you can say 'He admitted the loss of his passport'.

British Airways announce the arrival of flight BA 5531 from Glasgow.

The company reported a 45 per cent drop in profits.

Here is a list of reporting verbs which are often used with nouns that refer to events or facts:

80 Note that 'say' is usually only used with an object if the object is a very general word such as 'something', 'anything', or 'nothing'.

I must have said something wrong.

The man nodded but said nothing.

81 A few verbs referring to speech and thought can be used with a prepositional phrase rather than a reported clause, to indicate the general subject matter of a statement or thought.

Thomas explained about the request from Paris.

Here are three lists of verbs which can be used with a prepositional phrase referring to a fact or subject. The first group of verbs in each list are used without an object, and the second group are used with an object referring to the hearer. Note that 'ask' and 'warn' can be used with or without an object.

The following verbs are used with 'about':

No one knew about my interest in mathematics.

I asked him about the horses.

The following verbs are used with 'of':

They never complained of the incessant rain.

Mr Beltrami had informed Mr MMurray of these developments.

The following verbs are used with 'on'. None of them take an object referring to the hearer.

He had already decided on his story.

She remarked on the excellence of his English.

Note that 'speak' and 'talk' are used with 'about' and 'of' but not with reported clause.

Other ways of using reported clauses

other verbs used with reported clauses 82 There are a few verbs which do not refer to saying, thinking, or learning but which are followed by 'that'-clauses because they refer to actions which relate to facts: for example, checking facts or proving facts.

He checked that both rear doors were safely shut.

Research with animals shows that males will mother an infant as well as any female.

Here is a list of verbs which are not verbs of speech or thought but can be followed by a 'that'-clause:

Note that 'determine' can also be a verb of thought and 'reveal' can also be a verb of speech. See paragraphs 27, 35, and 4

'Arrange' and 'require' are used with a 'that'-clause containing a modal or a subjunctive. 'Arrange' can also be used with a 'to'-infinitive clause.

The King arranged that I should have the Order of Merit.

They'd arranged to leave at four o'clock.

'Demonstrate', 'prove', 'reveal', and 'show' can also be followed by a clause beginning with a 'wh'-word which refers to a circumstance involved in a fact.

The woman took the gun and showed how the cylinder slotted into the barrel.

'Prove', 'require', and 'show' can also be used in the passive followed by a 'to'-infinitive clause.

No place on earth can be shown to be safe.

If you want to mention another person involved in these actions, you can put an object after 'show', use 'to' after 'demonstrate', 'indicate', 'prove', and 'reveal', and use 'with' after 'arrange' and 'check'.

This attitude of the children showed me that watching violence can lower a child's standards of behaviour.

The way my eyelids had closed proved to me that I was almost as suggestible as Patricia.

She arranged with the principal of her school to take the necessary time off.

83 If you want to say that something happens, that something is the case, or that something becomes known, you can use a 'that'-clause after 'happen', 'transpire', or 'emerge'. The subject of the reporting clause is impersonal 'it'.

It often happens that a mother asks for advice and does not get it.

It just happened that he had a client who rather liked that sort of thing.

It transpired that there was not a word of truth in the letter.

It emerged that, during the afternoon, she had gone home unwell.

Note that the 'that'-clause must be introduced by 'that'.

84 There are many nouns, such as 'statement', 'advice', and 'opinion', which refer to what someone says or thinks. Many of the nouns used in this way are related to reporting verbs. For example, 'information' is related to 'inform', and 'decision' is related to 'decide'. These nouns can be used in report structures in a similar way to reporting verbs. They are usually followed by a reported clause beginning with 'that'.

He referred to Copernicus' statement that the earth moves around the sun.

He expressed the opinion that Kitchener should be made War Minister.

There was little hope that he would survive.

Here is a list of nouns which have related reporting verbs and which can be used with 'that'-clauses:

Some of these nouns can also be followed by a 'to'-infinitive clause:

The decision to go had not been an easy one to make.

Barnaby's father had fulfilled his promise to buy his son a horse.

Note that some nouns that are not related to reporting verbs can be followed by 'that'-clauses, because they refer or relate to facts or beliefs. Here is a list of some of these nouns:

He didn't want her to get the idea that he was rich.

I had no evidence that Jed was the killer.

Eventually, a distraught McCoo turned up with the news that his house had just burned down.

85 There are many adjectives that can be followed by reported clauses when they are the complement of a link verb, usually 'be'.

86 If you want to say what causes someone to have a particular feeling, you can mention   the cause of the feeling in a 'that'-clause after an adjective describing the feeling.

Everybody was sad that she had to return to America.

I am confident that I shall be able to persuade them to go.

I was worried that she'd say no.

Here is a list of adjectives describing feelings:

saying what someone knows 7,87 If you want to say that someone knows something, you can say what they know in a 'that'-clause after an adjective such as 'aware' or 'conscious'.

He was aware that he had drunk too much whisky.

I am conscious that I have provided no answer in this book.

Here is a list of adjectives indicating knowledge:

'Aware' is occasionally used with a reported clause beginning with a 'wh'-word.

I am well aware how busy you are at this season of the year.

commenting on a fact 88 If you want to comment on a fact, you can use an adjective describing the fact followed by a 'that'-clause. The link verb has impersonal 'it' as its subject.

It was sad that people had reacted in the way they did.

It is true that the authority of parliament has declined.

It is extraordinary that we should ever have met!

It seems probable that the world can go on producing enough food for everyone.

Here is a list of adjectives used to comment on facts:

After a few adjectives, a clause beginning with a 'wh'-word can be used.

It's funny how they don't get on.

It was never clear why she worked all her life as a domestic servant.

For more information see paragraph 10.43.

nominal use of 'that'-clauses 89 'That'-clauses can be used as complements after 'be' to refer to a fact or idea. The subject is usually one of the nouns listed in paragraph 8

The fact is that a happy person makes a better worker.

The answer is simply that they are interested in doing it.

The most favoured explanation was that he was finally getting tired.

Our hope is that this time all parties will cooperate.

90 In formal English, 'that'-clauses are sometimes used as the subject of a verb, when people want to comment on a fact.

That I write with a bias is natural.

That man can aspire to and achieve goodness is evident through all of history.

In less formal English, 'the fact' plus a 'that'-clause is often used as a subject instead of a simple 'that'-clause.

The fact that what they are doing is illegal is a trivial irrelevance.

The fact that your boss is actually offering to do your job for you should certainty prompt you to question his motives.

The normal way of commenting on a fact is to use an impersonal 'it' structure. See paragraph 88.

91 People also use 'the fact' plus a 'that'-clause as the object of prepositions and of verbs which cannot be followed by a simple 'that'-clause.

acknowledgement of the fact that we have no intrinsic right to receive answers to all our questions.

We overlooked the fact that the children's emotional development had been retarded.

92 When you want to refer to matters which are not certain or definite or about which a choice has to be made, you can use clauses beginning with a 'wh'-word or 'whether', like the clauses used for reported questions. They can be used after prepositions, and as the subject of verbs such as 'be', 'depend', and 'matter'.

the question of who should be President of the Board of Trade.

The State is desperately uncertain about what it wants artists to do.

What you get depends on how badly you were injured.

Whether I went twice or not doesn't matter.

Whether you think they are any good or not is irrelevant.

93 Structures consisting of a 'wh'-word plus a 'to'-infinitive clause, which refer to a possible course of action, are used after prepositions but not usually as subjects.

the problem of what to tell the adopted child.

a book on how to avoid having a heart attack.

People are very worried about how to fill their increased leisure time.

94 Note that 'if'-clauses, which are used for reported questions, cannot be used after prepositions or as the subject of a verb.