EXPEDIENT WATER
CROSSINGS
In a survival
situation, you may have to cross a water obstacle. It may be in the form of a
river, a stream, a lake, a bog, quicksand, quagmire, or muskeg. Even in the
desert, flash floods occur, making streams an obstacle. Whatever it is, you
need to know how to cross it safely.
Rivers and Streams
Rafts
Floatation Devices
Other Water Obstacles
RIVERS
AND STREAMS
You can apply almost
every description to rivers and streams. They may be shallow or deep, slow or
fast moving, narrow or wide. Before you try to cross a river or stream, develop
a good plan.
Your first step is to look for a high
place from which you can get a good view of the river or stream. From this
place, you can look for a place to cross. If there is no high place, climb a
tree. Good crossing locations include--
- A level stretch where it breaks into several channels. Two or three
narrow channels are usually easier to cross than a wide river.
- A shallow bank or sandbar. If possible, select a point upstream
from the bank or sandbar so that the current will carry you to it if you
lose your footing.
- A course across the river that leads downstream so that you will
cross the current at about a 45-degree angle.
The following areas possess potential
hazards; avoid them, if possible:
- Obstacles on the opposite side of the river that might hinder your
travel. Try to select the
spot from which travel will be the safest and easiest.
- A ledge of rocks that crosses the river. This often indicates dangerous rapids or
canyons.
- A deep or rapid waterfall or a deep channel. Never try to ford a stream directly above
or even close to such hazards.
- Rocky places. You
may sustain serious injuries from slipping or falling on rocks. Usually,
submerged rocks are very slick, making balance extremely difficult. An
occasional rock that breaks the current, however, may help you.
- An estuary of a river. An estuary is normally wide, has strong currents, and is subject
to tides. These tides can influence some rivers many kilometers from their
mouths. Go back upstream to an easier crossing site.
- Eddies. An eddy
can produce a powerful backward pull downstream of the obstruction causing
the eddy and pull you under the surface.
The depth of a fordable river or
stream is no deterrent if you can keep your footing. In fact, deep water
sometimes runs more slowly and is therefore safer than fast-moving shallow
water. You can always dry your clothes later, or if necessary, you can make a
raft to carry your clothing and equipment across the river.
You must not try to swim or wade
across a stream or river when the water is at very low temperatures. This swim
could be fatal. Try to make a raft of some type. Wade across if you can get
only your feet wet. Dry them vigorously as soon as you reach the other bank.
RAPIDS
If necessary, you can safely cross a
deep, swift river or rapids. To swim across a deep, swift river, swim with the
current, never fight it. Try to keep your body horizontal to the water. This
will reduce the danger of being pulled under.
In fast, shallow rapids, lie on your
back, feet pointing downstream, finning your hands alongside your hips. This
action will increase buoyancy and help you steer away from obstacles. Keep your
feet up to avoid getting them bruised or caught by rocks.
In deep rapids, lie on your stomach, head downstream, angling toward the shore whenever
you can. Watch for obstacles and be careful of backwater eddies and converging
currents, as they often contain dangerous swirls. Converging currents occur
where new watercourses enter the river or where water has been diverted around
large obstacles such as small islands.
To ford a swift,
treacherous stream, apply the following steps:
- Remove your pants and shirt to lessen the water's pull on you. Keep
your footgear on to protect your feet and ankles from rocks. It will also provide you with firmer footing.
- Tie your pants and other articles to the top of your rucksack or in
a bundle, if you have no pack. This way, if you have to release your
equipment, all your articles will be together. It is easier to find one
large pack than to find several small items.
- Carry your pack well up on your shoulders and be sure you can
easily remove it, if necessary. Not being able to
get a pack off quickly enough can drag even the strongest swimmers under.
- Find a strong pole about 7.5 centimeters in diameter and 2.1 to 2.4
meters long to help you ford the stream. Grasp the pole and plant it
firmly on your upstream side to break the current. Plant your feet firmly
with each step, and move the pole forward a little downstream from its
previous position, but still upstream from you. With your next step, place
your foot below the pole. Keep the pole well slanted so that the force of
the current keeps the pole against your shoulder (Figure
17-1
- Cross the stream so that you will cross the downstream current at a
45-degree angle.
Using this method, you can safely
cross currents usually too strong for one person to stand against. Do not
concern yourself about your pack's weight, as the weight will help rather than
hinder you in fording the stream.
If there are other
people with you, cross the stream together. Ensure that everyone has prepared their pack
and clothing as outlined
above. Position the heaviest person on the downstream end of the pole and the
lightest on the upstream end. In using this method, the upstream person breaks
the current, and those below can move with relative ease in the eddy formed by
the upstream person. If the upstream person gets temporarily swept off his
feet, the others can hold steady while he regains his footing (Figure 17-2
If you have three or more people and a
rope available, you can use the technique shown in Figure 17-3 to cross the stream. The length of the rope
must be three times the width of the stream.
Back to Expedient
Water Crossings
RAFTS
If you have two ponchos, you can
construct a brush raft or an Australian poncho raft. With either of these
rafts, you can safely float your equipment across a slow-moving stream or
river.
Brush Raft
The brush raft, if properly
constructed, will support about 115 kilograms. To construct it, use ponchos,
fresh green brush, two small saplings, and rope or vine as follows (Figure
17-4
- Push the hood of each poncho to the
inner side and tightly tie off the necks using the drawstrings.
- Attach the ropes or vines at the
corner and side grommets of each poncho. Make sure they are long
enough to cross to and tie with the others attached at the opposite
corner or side.
- Spread one poncho on the ground with
the inner side up. Pile fresh, green brush (no thick branches) on the
poncho until the brush stack is about 45 centimeters high. Pull the
drawstring up through the center of the brush stack.
- Make an X-frame from two small
saplings and place it on top of the brush stack. Tie the X-frame
securely in place with the poncho drawstring.
- Pile another 45 centimeters of brush
on top of the X-frame, then compress the
brush slightly.
- Pull the poncho sides up around the
brush and, using the ropes or vines attached to the comer or side
grommets, tie them diagonally from comer to corner and from side to
side.
- Spread the second poncho, inner side
up, next to the brush bundle.
- Roll the brush bundle onto the second
poncho so that the tied side is down. Tie the second poncho around the
brush bundle in the same manner as you tied the first poncho around
the brush.
- Place it in the water with the tied
side of the second poncho facing up.
Australian Poncho Raft
If you do not have time to gather
brush for a brush raft, you can make an Australian poncho raft. This raft,
although more waterproof than the poncho brush raft, will only float about
35 kilograms of equipment. To construct this raft, use two ponchos, two
rucksacks, two 1.2-meter poles or branches, and ropes, vines, bootlaces, or
comparable material as follows (Figure 17-5
- Push the hood of each poncho to the
inner side and tightly tie off the necks using the drawstrings.
- Spread one poncho on the ground with
the inner side up. Place and center the two 1.2-meter poles on the
poncho about 45 centimeters apart.
- Place your rucksacks or packs or other
equipment between the poles. Also place other items that you want to
keep dry between the poles. Snap the poncho sides
together.
- Use your buddy's help to complete the
raft. Hold the snapped portion of the poncho in the air and roll it
tightly down to the equipment. Make sure you roll the full width of
the poncho.
- Twist the ends of the roll to form
pigtails in opposite directions. Fold the pigtails over the bundle and
tie them securely in place using ropes, bootlaces, or vines.
- Spread the second poncho on the
ground, inner side up. If you need more buoyancy, place some fresh
green brush on this poncho.
- Place the equipment bundle, tied side
down, on the center of the second poncho. Wrap the second poncho
around the equipment bundle following the same procedure you used for
wrapping the equipment in the first poncho.
- Tie ropes, bootlaces, vines, or other
binding material around the raft about 30 centimeters from the end of
each pigtail. Place and secure weapons on top of
the raft.
- Tie one end of a rope to an empty
canteen and the other end to the raft. This will
help you to tow the raft.
Poncho Donut Raft
Another type of raft is the poncho
donut raft. It takes more time to construct than the brush raft or
Australian poncho raft, but it is effective. To construct it, use one
poncho, small saplings, willow or vines, and rope, bootlaces, or other
binding material (Figure 17-6) as follows:
- Make a framework circle by placing
several stakes in the ground that roughly outline an inner and outer
circle.
- Using young saplings, willow, or
vines, construct a donut ring within the circles of stakes.
- Wrap several pieces of cordage around
the donut ring about 30 to 60 centimeters apart and tie them securely.
- Push the poncho's hood to the inner
side and tightly tie off the neck using the drawstring.
- Place the poncho on the ground, inner
side up. Place the donut ring on the center of the poncho. Wrap the
poncho up and over the donut ring and tie off each grommet on the
poncho to the ring.
- Tie one end of a rope to an empty
canteen and the other end to the raft. This rope
will help you to tow the raft.
When launching any of the above rafts, take care not to puncture or tear it by
dragging it on the ground. Before you start to cross the river or stream,
let the raft lay on the water a few minutes to ensure that it floats.
If the river is too deep to ford,
push the raft in front of you while you are swimming. The design of the
above rafts does not allow
them to carry a person's full body weight. Use them as a float to get you
and your equipment safely across the river or stream.
Be sure to check the water
temperature before trying to cross a river or water obstacle. If the water
is extremely cold and you are unable to find a shallow fording place in the
river, do not try to ford it. Devise other means for crossing. For
instance, you might improvise a bridge by felling a tree over the river. Or
you might build a raft large enough to carry you and your equipment. For
this, however, you will need an axe, a knife, a rope or vines, and time.
Log Raft
You can make a raft using any dry,
dead, standing trees for logs. However, spruce trees found in polar and
subpolar regions make the best rafts. A simple method for making a raft is
to use pressure bars lashed securely at each end of the raft to hold the
logs together (Figure 17-7
Back
to Expedient Water Crossings
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FLOATATION
DEVICES
If the water is warm enough for
swimming and you do not have the time or materials to construct one of the
poncho-type rafts, you can use various flotation devices to negotiate the water
obstacle. Some items you can use for flotation devices
are--
- Trousers. Knot
each trouser leg at the bottom and close the fly. With both hands, grasp
the waistband at the sides and swing the trousers in the air to trap air
in each leg. Quickly press the sides of the waistband together and hold it
underwater so that the air will not escape. You now have water wings to
keep you afloat as you cross the body of water.
Note: Wet the
trousers before inflating to trap the air better You
may have to reinflate the trousers several times when crossing a large body of
water.
- Empty containers.
Lash together her empty gas cans, water jugs, ammo cans, boxes, or other
items that will trap or hold air. Use them as water wings. Use this type
of flotation device only in a slow-moving river or stream.
- Plastic bags and ponchos. Fill two or more plastic bags with air and secure them together at
the opening. Use your poncho and roll green vegetation tightly inside it
so that you have a roll at least 20 centimeters in diameter. Tie the ends
of the roll securely. You can wear it around your waist or across one
shoulder and under the opposite arm.
- Logs. Use a
stranded drift log if one is available, or find a log near the water to
use as a float. Be sure to test the log before starting to cross. Some
tree logs, palm for example, will sink even when the wood is dead. Another
method is to tie two logs about 60 centimeters apart. Sit between the logs
with your back against one and your legs over the other (Figure
17-8
- Cattails. Gather
stalks of cattails and tie them in a bundle 25 centimeters or more in
diameter. The many air cells in each stalk cause a stalk to float until it
rots. Test the cattail bundle to be sure it will
support your weight before trying to cross a body of water.
There are many other flotation devices
that you can devise by using some imagination. Just make sure to test the
device before trying to use it.
Back
to Expedient Water Crossings
OTHER
WATER OBSTACLES
Other water obstacles that you may
face are bogs, quagmire, muskeg, or quicksand. Do not try to walk across these.
Trying to lift your feet while standing upright will make you sink deeper. Try
to bypass these obstacles. If you are unable to bypass them, you may be able to
bridge them using logs, branches, or foliage.
A way to cross a bog is to lie face
down, with your arms and legs spread. Use a flotation device or form pockets of
air in your clothing. Swim or pull your way across moving slowly and trying to
keep your body horizontal.
In swamps, the areas that have
vegetation are usually firm enough to support your weight. However, vegetation
will usually not be present in open mud or water areas. If you are an average
swimmer, however, you should have no problem swimming, crawling, or pulling
your way through miles of bog or swamp.
Quicksand is a mixture of sand and
water that forms a shifting mass. It yields easily to pressure and sucks down
and engulfs objects resting on its surface. It varies in depth and is usually
localized. Quicksand commonly occurs on flat shores, in silt-choked rivers with
shifting watercourses, and near the mouths of large rivers. If you are
uncertain whether a sandy area is quicksand, toss a small stone on it. The
stone will sink in quicksand. Although quicksand has more suction than mud or
muck, you can cross it just as you would cross a bog. Lie face down, spread
your arms and legs, and move slowly across.
VEGETATION OBSTACLES
Some water areas you must cross may
have underwater and floating plants that will make swimming difficult. However,
you can swim through relatively dense vegetation if you remain calm and do not
thrash about. Stay as near the surface as possible and use the breaststroke
with shallow leg and arm motion. Remove the plants around you as you would clothing. When you get tired, float or swim on your back
until you have rested enough to continue with the breaststroke.
The mangrove swamp is another type of
obstacle that occurs along tropical coastlines. Mangrove trees or shrubs throw
out many prop roots that form dense masses. To get through a mangrove swamp,
wait for low tide. If you are on the inland side, look for a narrow grove of
trees and work your way seaward through these. You can also try to find the bed
of a waterway or creek through the trees and follow it to the sea. If you are
on the seaward side, work inland along streams or channels. Be on the lookout
for crocodiles that you find along channels and in shallow water. If there are
any near you, leave the water and scramble over the mangrove roots. While
crossing a mangrove swamp, it is possible to gather food from tidal pools or
tree roots.
To cross a large swamp area, construct
some type of raft.
