Adverbial clauses - Time clauses

Adverbial clauses

6 There are eight types of adverbial clause:

Non-finite clauses, when they begin with a subordinating conjunction, are dealt with in the sections dealing with adverbial clauses. Non-finite clauses which do not begin with a subordinating conjunction are dealt with separately in paragraphs 117 to 133. Other structures which function like non-finite clauses are described in paragraphs 134 to 13

7 The usual position for an adverbial clause is just after the main clause.

I couldn't think of a single thing to say after he'd replied like that.

The performances were cancelled because the leading man was ill.

However most types of adverbial clause can be put in front of a main clause.

When the city is dark, we can move around easily.

Although crocodiles are inactive for long periods, on occasion they can run very fast indeed.

Occasionally, you can put an adverbial clause in the middle of another clause, although this is unusual.

They make allegations which, when you analyse them, do not have too many facts behind them.

There are a few types of adverbial clause which always go after a main clause: other types always go in front of one. This is explained in the sections dealing with the different types of clause.

Time clauses

8 Time clauses are used to say when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event.

Her father died when she was young.

Stocks of food cannot be brought in before the rains start.

He was detained last Monday after he returned from a business trip overseas.

When I first saw the wreckage I just didn't expect there to be so many survivors.

Time clauses can be used after adjuncts of time.

He mentioned his plans to her early one morning, before he left for the paddy fields.

I want to see you for a few minutes at twelve o'clock, when you go to lunch.

Adjuncts of time are explained in Chapter

9 When you are talking about the past or the present, the verb in a time clause has the same tense that it would have in a main clause or in a simple sentence.

I was standing by the window when I heard her speak.

I haven't given him a thing to eat since he arrived.

I look after the children while she goes to London.

However, if the time clause refers to something that will happen or exist in the future, you use the simple present tense, not a future tense.

For example, you say 'When he comes, I will show him the book', not 'When he will come, I will show him the book'.

As soon as we get the tickets, we'll send them to you.

He wants to see you before he dies.

Let the stay here till Jeannie comes to bed.

If you mention an event in a time clause which will happen before an event referred to in the main clause, you use the present perfect tense in the time clause, not the future perfect tense.

For example, you say 'When you have had your supper, come and see me', not 'When you will have had your supper, come and see me'.

We won't be getting married until we've saved enough money.

Tell the DHSS as soon as you have retired.

10 The most common conjunction in time clauses is 'when'. 'When' is used to say that something happened, happens, or will happen on a particular occasion.

When the telegram came and I read of his death, I couldn't believe it.

He didn't know how to behave when they next met.

11 You can mention the circumstances in which something happens or happened by using 'when', 'while', or 'as'.

The train has automatic doors that only open when the train is stationary.

While he was still in the stable, there was a loud knock at the front door.

He would swim beside the as I rowed in the little dinghy.

'Whilst' is a more formal form of 'while'.

Two were mere lodgers whom we looked after whilst their mistress was away.

USAGE NOTE 12 If you want to emphasize that something happened at a particular time, you can use 'It was' followed by an expression such as 'six o'clock' or 'three hours later', followed by a 'when'-clause.

For example, instead of saying 'I left at six o'clock', you say 'It was six o'clock when I left'.

It was about half past eight when he arrived at Sutwick.

It was late when he returned.

This is an example of a cleft structure. Cleft structures are explained in paragraphs 10.25 to 10.30.

repeated events 13 If you want to say that something always happened or happens in particular circumstances, you use 'when', 'whenever', 'every time', or 'each time'.

When he talks about the Church, he does sound like an outsider.

Whenever she had a cold, she ate only fruit.

Every time I go to that class I panic.

He flinched each time she spoke to him.

14 You use an expression such as 'the first time', 'the next time', or 'the third time' to say that something happened during one occurrence of an event.

The last time we talked he said he needed another two days.

The next time I come here, I'm going to be better.

events in sequence 15 You can also use 'when', 'after', or 'once' to talk about one event happening immediately after another.

When old Thrussel died, his widow came to the and said that he wished to be buried in the churchyard.

Stop the when you've had enough.

The turtle returns to the see after it has laid its eggs.

Once environmental damage is done, it takes many years for the system to recover.

If you want to say how long one event happened after another, you put a noun group such as 'two days' or 'three years' in front of 'after'.

Exactly six weeks after she had arrived, she sent a cable to her husband and caught the plane back to New York.

'As soon as', 'directly', 'immediately', 'the moment', 'the minute', and 'the instant' are all used to talk about one event happening a very short time after another.

They heart voices as soon as they pushed open the door.

The moment Stagg had finished, he and the other two scientists were subjected to a barrage of questions.

Immediately the meal was over, it was time for prayer.

16 When you want to say that something happened, happens, or will happen at an earlier time than something else, you use 'before'.

It was necessary for them to find a roof to live under before the cold weather set in.

They had not even bothered to bury their comrades before they fled.

Before man exterminated the rabbits they were the staple food both of the foxes and the wildcats.

If you want to say how long one event happened before another, you put a noun group such as 'three weeks' or 'a short time' in front of 'before'.

He had a review with the second organiser, about a month before the report was written.

Long before you return she will have forgotten you.

17 When you are telling a story, you sometimes want to say what was happening when a particular event occurred. You first say what was happening, then add a clause beginning with 'when' in which you mention the event.

I had just started back for the house to change my clothes when I heard voices.

He was having his Christmas dinner when the telephone rang.

If you want to say that one event happened a very short time after another, you use a clause in the past perfect tense, followed by a time clause in the simple past tense. After 'had' in the first clause, you put 'no sooner' of 'hardly'.

When you use 'no sooner', the time clause begins with 'than'.

I had no sooner checked into the hotel than he arrived with the appropriate documents.

When you use 'hardly', the time clause begins with 'when' or 'before'.

He had hardly got his eyes open before she told him that they were leaving.

'No sooner' or 'hardly' is often put at the beginning of the first clause, followed by 'had' and the subject.

No sooner had he asked the question than the answer came to him.

Hardly had the din faded behind them when they came upon another shouting crowd.

Hardly had Lamin wolfed down his meal before he flopped back onto the soft moss.

18 When something is the case because of a new situation, you can say what is the case and then add a subordinate clause saying what the new situation is. The subordinate clause begins with 'now' or 'now that'.

I feel better now I've talked to you.

He soon discovered how much faster he could travel now that he was alone.

saying when a situation began 19 If you want to say that a situation started to exist at a particular time and still exists, you use 'since' or 'ever since'. In the time clause, you use the simple past tense.

I've been in politics since I was at university.

It's been making money ever since it opened.

You also use 'since' or 'ever since' to say that a situation started to exist at a particular time, and still existed at a later time. In the time clause, you use the simple past tense or the past perfect tense.

He slept alone, as he had done ever since he left Didcot.

Back in Caen, Janine had been busy ever since she had heard the news.

If you are mentioning someone's age at the time when a situation started, you always use the simple past tense.

I was seven years older than Wendy and had known her since she was twelve.

'Since' is also used in reason clauses. This is explained in paragraph 50.

saying when a situation ends 20 If you want to say that a situation stopped when something happened, you use 'until' or 'till'.

I stayed there talking to them until I saw Sam Ward leave the building.

He grabbed the and shook the till my teeth rattled.

You also use 'until' or 'till' to say that a situation will stop when something happens in the future. In the time clause you use the simple present tense or the present perfect tense.

Stay with the until I go.

We'll support them till they find work.

Tell him I won't discuss anything until I've spoken to my wife.

21 'By which time', 'at which point', 'after which', 'whereupon', and 'upon which' are also used at the beginning of time clauses.

You use 'by which time' to say that something had already happened or will already have happened before the event you have just mentioned.

He came back eight months later, by which time the Japanese had decided to say yes.

You use 'at which point' to say that something happened immediately after the event you have just mentioned.

Later, service trades such as toolmaking and blacksmithing appeared, at which point the simple swapping of produce was no longer feasible.

You use 'after which' to say that a situation started to exist or will start to exist after the event you have just mentioned.

The clothes were sent away for chemical analysis, after which they were never seen again.

You use 'thereupon' or 'upon which' to say that something happened immediately after the event you have just mentioned and was a result of it.

His department was shut down, whereupon he returned to Calcutta.

Sally more or less implied that we did, upon which Howard flew into a great rage.

22 You can use a clause beginning with 'when' after a question beginning with 'why'. For example, you can say 'Why should I help her when she never helps me?' However this clause is not a time clause, in your question, you are expressing surprise or disagreement at something that has been said, and the 'when'-clause indicates the reason for your surprise or disagreement.

Why should he do the an injury when he has already saved my life?

Why worry her when it's all over?

23 Instead of using a finite time clause, you can often use a non-finite clause.

For example, you can say 'I often read a book when travelling by train', meaning 'I often read a book when I am travelling by train', and you can say 'When finished, the building will be opened by the Prince of Wales', meaning 'When it is finished, the building will be opened by the Prince of Wales'.

Adults sometimes do not realize their own strength when dealing with children.

Mark watched us while pretending not to.

I deliberately didn't read the book before going to see the film.

After evicting the inhabitants, he declared the houses derelict.

They had not spoken a word since leaving the party.

Michael used to look hurt and surprised when scolded.

Once convinced of the necessity of a move he worked with persistence and diplomacy until the college found a new home.

Note that you can only use a non-finite clause when it does not need to have a new subject, that is, when it is about the same thing as the clause.

24 For some statements about time, you can use a phrase consisting of 'when', 'while', 'once', 'until', or 'till', followed by a prepositional phrase or an adjective.

For example, you can say, 'When in Paris, you should visit the Louvre', meaning 'When you are in Paris, you should visit the Louvre'.

He had read of her elopement while at Oxford.

Man acquires great technological mastery of this world but, when under threat, reverts with terrifying ease to his primitive past.

Steam or boil them until just tender.

You can use a phrase consisting of 'when', 'whenever', 'where', or 'wherever' and an adjective such as 'necessary' or 'possible'.

For example, you can say 'You should take exercise whenever possible', meaning 'You should take exercise whenever it is possible'.

She had previously spoken seldom and then only when necessary.

It paid to speak the truth whenever possible.

Help must be given where necessary.

All experts agree that, wherever possible, children should learn to read in their own way.

Conditional clauses

25 When you want to talk about a possible situation and its consequences, you use a conditional clause.

Conditional clauses are used:

to talk about a situation which sometimes exists or existed

If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards.

Government cannot operate effectively unless it is free from such interference.

If I saw him in the street, he'd just say 'Good morning'.

to talk about a situation which you know does not exist

If England had a hot climate, the attitude would be different.

If I could afford it I would buy a boat.

to talk about a situation when you do not know whether it exists or not

If he is right it would be possible once more to manage the economy in the old way.

There's no reason why she should have come here unless it was to cadge free drinks.

to talk about a situation which may exist in the future.

If I marry Celia we shall need the money to live on.

If I went pack on the train it'd be cheaper.

Don't bring her unless she's sober.

Sentences containing conditional clauses are sometimes called conditional sentences.

26 Conditional clauses usually begin with 'if' or 'unless'.

You use 'if' to say that a consequence of something happening or being the case would be that something else would happen or be the case.

If you do that I shall be very pleased.

If I asked for something I got it.

They will even clean your car if they're in the mood.

When an 'if'-clause is put first, 'then' is sometimes put at the beginning of the main clause.

If this is what was happening in the Sixties, then I'm glad I wasn't around then.

'Unless' means 'ifnot'. For example, 'You will fail your exams unless you work harder' means 'If you do not work harder, you will fail your exams'.

There can be no new growth unless the ground is cleared.

Nobody gets anything unless they ask for it.

Clauses beginning with 'unless' usually go after a main clause.

modals and imperatives 27 When you are using a conditional clause, you often use a modal in the main clause.

You always use a modal in the main clause when you are talking about a situation which does not exist.

If you weren't here, she would get rid of the in no time.

If anybody had asked me, I could have told them what happened.

Modals are explained in paragraphs 95 to 262.

Conditional clauses are often used with imperative structures.

If you dry your washing outdoors, wipe the line first.

If it's four o'clock in the morning, don't expect to them to be pleased to see you.

Imperative structures are explained in paragraphs 4 and 31 to 3

28 There are special rules about which tense to use in conditional sentences.

Foreign learners are often taught that there are three kinds of conditional sentence:

the first conditional, in which the verb in the main clause is 'will' or 'shall' and the verb in the conditional clause is in the simple present tense

the second conditional, in which the verb in the main clause is 'would' or 'should' and the verb in the conditional clause is in the simple past tense

the third conditional in which the verb in the main clause is 'would have' or 'should have' and the verb in the conditional clause is in the past perfect tense.

This is largely correct, but does not fully describe the normal patterns of tense in conditional clauses which are set out in the following paragraphs.

29 When you are talking about a common occurrence, you use the simple present tense or the present continuous tense in the conditional clause and in the main clause.

If a man looks at me, I am flattered.

He never says a word unless he feels he's being threatened in some way.

If a tap is dripping, it needs a new washer.

If an advertisement conveys information which is false of misleading, the advertiser is committing an offence.

30 When you are talking about a common occurrence in the past, you use the simple past tense or the past continuous tense in the conditional clause. In the main clause, you use the simple past tense or a modal.

They sat on the grass if it was fine.

If it was raining, we usually stayed indoors.

If anyone came, they'd say 'How are you?'

If they wanted to go out, they could always count on the to stay with the baby.

Often I could not fall asleep unless I exercised to the point of exhaustion.

31 When you are talking about a possible situation in the present, you usually use the simple present tense or the present perfect tense in the conditional clause. In the main clause you usually use a modal.

If anyone doubts the truth of this, they should look at the two most successful post-war economies, Germany and Japan.

Unless you've tried it, you can't imagine how pleasant it is.

'If'-clauses of this kind can be used when you are offering to do something, or giving permission for something to be done. You use a modal in the main clause, and the subordinate clause consists of 'if', a pronoun, and 'want', 'like', or 'wish'.

I'll teach you, if you want.

You can leave if you like.

32 When you are talking about a possible future occurrence, you use the simple present tense in the conditional clause, and the simple future tense in the main clause.

If I ever get out of this alive, I'll never leave you again.

If nuclear weapons are employed in a world war, the world will be destroyed.

Willie will be a failure in life unless he is pushed.

USAGE NOTE 33 A more formal way of taking about a possible future situation is to use 'should' in the conditional clause. For example, instead of saying 'if anything happens, I will return immediately', you can say 'If anything should happen, I will return immediately'. In the main clause you use a modal, usually 'will' or 'would'.

If anyone should come this way, we would be caught like rats in a trap.

Another way of talking about a possible future situation is to use 'were' and a 'to'-infinitive in a conditional clause. For example, instead of saying 'If he goes, I will go too', you can say 'If he were to go, I would go too'. In the main clause you use 'would', 'should', or 'might'.

If we were to move north, we would be able to buy a bigger house.

unlikely situations 34 When you are talking about an unlikely situation, you use the simple past tense in the conditional clause, and 'would', 'should', or 'might' in the main clause.

The older men would find it difficult to get a job if they left the farm.

I should be surprised if it was less than five pounds.

If I frightened them, they might take off and I would never see them again.

In the conditional clause, 'were' is sometimes used instead of 'was', especial after 'I'.

If I were as big as you, I would kill you.

If I were asked to define my condition, I'd say 'bored'.

what might have been 35 When you are talking about something that might have happened in the past but did not happen, you use the past perfect tense in the conditional clause. In the main clause, you use 'would have', 'could have', 'should have', or 'might have'.

Perhaps if he had realized that, he would have run away while there was still time.

If she had not married, she would probably have become something special in her field.

putting the verb first 36 In formal or literary, English, if the first verb in an 'if'-clause is 'should', 'were', or 'had', this verb is sometimes put at the beginning of the clause and 'if' is omitted. For example, instead of saying 'It any visitors should come, I will say you are not here', someone might say 'Should any visitors come. I will say you are not here'.

Should ministers decide to instigate an inquiry, we would welcome it.

Were it all true, it would still not excuse their actions.

Were they to cease advertising, prices would be significantly reduced.

Had I known that there was never to be another opportunity, I would have filmed the occasion.

USACE NOTE 37 Instead of using a conditional clause containing the word 'be', you can sometimes use a phrase consisting of 'if' followed by an adjective or a prepositional phrase. For example, instead of saying 'We will sell the car, if it is necessary', you can say 'We will sell the car, if necessary'.

This unfortunate situation is to be avoided if possible.

If I were innocent, I'd rather be tried here; if guilty, in America.

If in doubt, ask at your local library.

38 If you want to say that one situation is necessary for another, you use 'provided', 'providing', 'as long as', 'so long as', or 'only if'. 'Provided' and 'providing' are often followed by 'that'.

A child will learn what is right and what is wrong in good time-provided he is not pressured.

Lady Sackville was prepared to come, provided that she might bring her daughter.

The oven bakes magnificent bread providing there is a hot enough fire in the furnace.

They are content for the world to stay as it is, poverty, pain and everything, as long as they are comfortable.

These activities can flourish only if agriculture and rural industry are flourishing.

When you are using 'only if', you can put the 'only' in the main clause, separated from the 'if'. For example, instead of saying 'I will come only if he wants me', you can say 'I will only come if he wants me'.

He told them that disarmament was only possible if Britain changed her foreign policy.

Another way of saying that one situation is necessary for another is to use a conditional clause consisting of 'if' followed by the subject, a form of 'be', and a 'to'-infinitive clause. In the main clause, you say what is necessary using 'must'.

It's late, and if I am to get any sleep I must go.

If you are to escape, you must leave the and go on alone.

39 If you want to say that one situation would not affect another, you can use 'even if'.

I would have married her even if she had been penniless.

Even if you've never been taught to mend a fuse, you don't have to sit in the dark.

Even if we do not resort to such dramatic measures, it seems likely that there will be many exciting opportunities in the future.

'Even if' is also used in concessive clauses. This is explained in paragraph 6

40 If you want to say that a situation would not be affected by any of two or more things, you use 'whether'. You put 'or' between the different possibilities.

If the lawyer made a long, oratorical speech, the client was happy whether he won or lost.

Catching a frog can be a difficult business, whether you're a human or a bird or a reptile.

Whether you go to a launderette or do your washing at home, the routine is the same.

If you want to say that what happens would not be affected by either of two opposite situations, you use a clause beginning with 'whether or not'.

Whether or not people have religious faith, they can believe in the power of love.

I get an electrician to check all my electrical appliances every autumn, whether or not they are giving trouble.

'Or not' can be put at the end of the clause.

Whether I agree or not, the search would take place.

USAGE NOTE 41 When the verb in a 'whether'-clause is 'be', the subjunctive mood is sometimes used. When you use the subjunctive mood, you use the base form of a verb rather than the third person singular. This is rather formal.

Always immediately report such behaviour to the nearest person in authority, whether it be a school teacher or a policeman or anyone else.

When the verb in a 'whether'-clause is 'be' and the subject is a personal pronoun such as 'they' or 'it', you can omit 'be' and the pronoun. For example, instead of saying 'All the villagers, whether they are young or old, help with the harvest', you can say 'All the villagers, whether young or old, help with the harvest'.

A fresh pepper, whether red or green, lasts about three weeks.

They help people, whether chance visitors or students of medieval history, to learn more or our past.

42 When you want to say that something is the case and that it does not matter which person, place, cause, method, or thing is involved, you use 'whoever', 'wherever', 'however', 'whatever', or 'whichever'.

Whoever wins this civil war there will be little rejoicing at the victory.

Wherever it is, you aren't going.

However it began, the battle was bound to develop into a large-scale conflict.

'Whatever' and 'whichever' are used either as determiners or pronouns.

Whatever brand you use, you will need four times as many teaspoonfuls as before.

That is why the deficit remains of key importance this year, whatever the Chancellor might say.

Whichever way you look at it, neutrality is folly.

You can either sow wheat in rows or broadcast it. Whichever you do, it is a good thing to break up the soil after seeding.

Another way of saying that it does not matter who or what is involved is to use 'no matter' followed by 'who', 'where', 'how', 'what', or 'which'.

Most people, no matter who they are, seem to have at least one.

Our aim is to recruit the best person for the job, no matter where they are from.

No matter how I'm playing, I always get that special feeling.

Purpose clauses

43 When you want to indicate the purpose of an action, you use a purpose clause.

Here is a list of the most common conjunction used in purpose clauses:

types of purpose clause 44 There are two kinds of purpose clause.

Non-finite purpose clauses are the most common kind. They contain a 'to'-infinitive.

They had to take some of his land in order to extend the churchyard.

Farmers have put up barricades to prevent hippies moving on to their land.

The subject of a non-finite purpose clause is always the same as the subject of the main clause.

Non-finite purpose clauses are explained in paragraphs 45 to 4

Finite purpose clauses usually contain a 'that'-clause.

Be as clear and factual as possible in order that there may be no misunderstanding.

Finite purpose clauses are explained in paragraphs 47 to 4

45 Non-finite purpose clauses usually begin with 'in order to' or 'so to'.

They were shoving each other out of the way in order to get to the front.

They have tried to limit such imports in order to protect their members jobs.

The best thing to do is to fix up a screen so as to let in the fresh air and keep out the flies.

If you want to make one of these clauses negative, you put 'not' in front of the 'to'.

Rose trod with care in order not to spread the dirt.

When removing a stain, work from the edge inwards so as not to enlarge the area affected.

46 Non-finite purpose clauses can simply be 'to'-infinitive clauses.

People would stroll down the path to admire the garden.

The children sleep together to keep warm.

To understand what is happening now, we need to reflect on what has been achieved in the last decade.

However, you cannot use a negative with one of these structures. You cannot say, for example, 'We keep the window shut not to let the files in'. You would have to say, 'We keep the window shut in order not to let the flies in'.

47 Finite purpose clauses usually begin with 'in order that', 'so that', or 'so'. They usually contain a modal.

If the verb in the main clause is in a present tense or in the present perfect tense, you usually use one of the modals 'can', 'may', 'will', or 'shall' in the purpose clause.

It's best to be as short, clear and factual as possible, in order that there may be no misunderstanding.

people who are teaming English in order that they can study a particular subject.

If the verb in the main clause is in a past tense, you usually use 'could', 'might', 'should', or 'would' in the purpose clause.

A stranger in the crowd had hoisted Philip up on his shoulder so that he might see the procession depart.

I bought six cows so that we should have some milk to sell.

She said she wanted tea ready at six so she could be out by eight.

Ordinary verbs are occasionally used instead of modals, especially in negative purpose clauses.

Brian would like to increase his son David's wage, so that David doesn't get disillusioned because his contemporaries in less skilled jobs are earning more.

'So that' is also used in result clauses. This use is explained in paragraphs 55 and 5

48 In formal or old-fashioned English, 'lest' is sometimes used at the beginning of a finite purpose clause to say what an action is intended to prevent.

For example, 'They built a statue of him lest people should forget what he had done' means the same as 'They built a statue of him so that people should forget what he had done'.

He was put in a cell with no clothes and shoes lest he injure himself.

He spoke in whispers lest the servants should hear him.

In clauses beginning with 'lest', you use either the subjunctive mood or a modal.

Reason clauses

49 When you want to indicate the reason for something, you use a reason clause.

Here is a list of the main conjunctions used in reason clauses:

50 If you are simply indicating the reason for something, you use 'because', 'since', or 'as'.

I couldn't feel anger against him because I liked him too much.

I didn't know that she had been married, since she seldom talked about herself.

As Celia had gone to school, it seemed a good time for Lady Ravenscroft to invite her sister to stay.

51 You use 'in case' of 'just in case' when you are mentioning a possible future situation which is someone's reason for doing something. In the reason clause you use the simple present tense.

Mr Woods, I am here just in case anything out of the ordinary happens.

When you are talking about someone's reason for doing something in the past, you use the simple past tense in the reason clause.

Sam had consented to take an overcoat in case the wind rose.

52 'In that', 'inasmuch as', 'insofar as', 'and 'to the extent that' are used to say why a statement you have just made is true. These are formal expressions.

I'm in a difficult situation in that I have been offered two jobs and they both sound interesting.

Censorship is feeble inasmuch as it does not protect anyone.

We are traditional insofar as we do traditional sketches, but we try and do them about original ideas.

He feels himself to be dependent to the extent that he is not free to question decisions affecting his daily life.

53 People sometimes use reason clauses beginning with 'for' or 'seeing that'. 'For' means the same as 'because'. Its use in reason clauses is now considered to be old-fashioned.

We never see Henry these days, for Henry has grown fat and lazy.

'Seeing that' means the same as 'since'. It is used only in informal speech.

Seeing that you're the guest on this little trip, I won't tell you what I think of your behaviour last night.

'Now' and 'now that' are used to say that a new situation is the reason for something. Clauses beginning with 'now' or 'now that' are dealt with as time clauses. They are explained in paragraph 1

Result clauses

54 When you want to indicate the result of something, you use a result clause. Result clauses always come after the main clause.

55 Result clauses usually begin with 'so that'.

You can use 'so that' simply to say what the result of an event or situation was.

My suitcase had become damaged on the journey home, so that the lid would not stay closed.

A great storm had brought the sea right into the house, so that they had been forced to make their escape by a window at the back.

Many wives shoulder the prime responsibility for running the home, so that in most families the loss of the wife is more devastating than the loss of the husband.

'So', 'and so', and 'and' can also be used.

The young do not have the money to save and the old are consuming their savings, so it is mainly the middle-aged who are saving.

She was having a great difficulty getting her car out, and so I had to move my car to let her out.

Her boy friend was shot in the chest and died.

With these result clauses, you usually put a comma after the main clause.

56 You can also use 'so that' to say that something is or was done in a particular way to achieve a desired result.

For example, 'He fixed the bell so that it would ring when anyone came in' means 'He fixed the bell in such a way that it would ring when anyone came in'.

Explain it so that a 10-year-old could understand it.

They arranged things so that they never met.

With these result clauses, you do not put a comma after the main clause.

57 'So that' is also used in finite purpose clauses. This use is explained in paragraph 4

58 'So' and 'that' are also used in a special kind of structure to say that a result happens because something has a quality to a particular extent, or because something is done in an extreme way.

In these structures, 'so' is used as a modifier in front of an adjective or adverb. A 'that'-clause is then added as a qualifier. Modifiers and qualifiers are explained in Chapter 2. See paragraph 2.309 for similar structures to the one described in this paragraph.

The crowd was so large that it overflowed the auditorium.

They were so surprised they didn't try to stop him.

He dressed so quickly that he put his boots on the wrong feet.

She had fallen down so often that she was covered in mud.

Sometimes 'as' is used instead of 'that'. 'As' is followed by a 'to'-infinitive clause.

small beaches of sand so white as to dazzle the eye.

I hope that nobody was so stupid as to go around saying those things.

59 'So' and 'that' can also be used in this way with 'many', 'few', 'much', and 'little'.

We found so much to talk about that it was late at night when we remembered the time.

There were so many children you could hardly squeeze in the room.

USAGE NOTE 60 When the verb in the main clause is 'be' or when an auxiliary is used, the normal order of words is often changed for greater emphasis. 'So' is put at the beginning of the sentence, followed by the adjective, adverb, or noun group. 'Be' or the auxiliary is placed in front of the subject.

For example, instead of saying 'The room was so tiny that you could not get a bed into it', you can say 'So tiny was the room that you could not get a bed into it'.

So successful have they been that they are moving to Bond Street.

So rapid is the rate of progress that advance seems to be following advance on almost a monthly basis.

61 'Such' and 'that' are also used to say that a result happens because something has a quality to a particular extent. You put 'such' in front of a noun group, and then add a 'that'-clause.

If the noun in the noun group is a singular count noun, you put 'a' or 'an' in front of it.

I slapped her hand and she got such a shock that she dropped the bag.

If you tell them I'm prepared to give evidence they'll get such a scare they'll drop the whole thing.

They obeyed him with such willingness that the strike went on for over a year.

These birds have such small wings that they cannot get into the air even if they try.

62 'Such' can be used in a similar structure as an adjective with the meaning 'so great'. The 'that'-clause goes immediately after it.

The extent of the disaster was such that the local authorities were quite unable to cope.

Sometimes 'such' is put at the beginning of a sentence, followed by 'be', a noun group, and the 'that'-clause. For example, instead of saying 'Her beauty was such that they could only stare', you can say 'Such was her beauty that they could only stare'.

Such is the power of suggestion that within a very few minutes she fell asleep.

63 You can also use 'such' as an adjective to say that a result is obtained by something being of a particular kind. 'Such' is followed by a 'that'-clause or by 'as' and a 'to'-infinitive clause.

The machine's design should be such that its internal parts could be employed in a variety of ways.

The improvements to our defence had been such as to put invasion right out of the question.

You can use the expression 'in such a way' to say that a result is obtained by something being done in a particularly way. It is followed by a 'that'-clause or by 'as' and a 'to'-infinitive clause.

She had been taught to behave in such a way that her parents would have as quiet a life as possible.

Is it right that this high tax should be spent in such a way as to give benefit mainly to the motorist?

64 You use 'otherwise', 'else', or 'or else' to say that a result of something not happening or not being the case would be that something else would happen or be the case.

For example, 'Give me back my money, otherwise I'll ring the police' means 'If you don't give me back my money, I'll ring the police'.

I'm not used to living on my own so I want a house I like, otherwise I'll get depressed.

I must have done something wrong, or else they wouldn't have kept me here.

Concessive clauses

65 Sometimes you want to make two statements, one of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising. You can put both statements into one sentence by using a concessive clause.

Here is a list of conjunctions used in concessive clauses:

66 If you simply want to contrast two statements, you use 'although', 'though', 'even though', or 'while'.

I used to read a lot although I don't get much time for books now.

Though he has lived for years in London, he writes in German.

I used to love listening to her, even though I could understand about half of that she said.

While I did well in class, I was a poor performer at games.

'Whilst' and 'whereas' can also be used. They are fairly formal words.

Raspberries have a matt, spongy surface whilst blackberries have a taut, shiny skin.

To every child adult approval means love, whereas disapproval means hate.

67 if you want to say that something which is probably true does not affect the truth of something else, you use 'even if'.

All this is part of modern commercial life (even if it is not as essential an activity as most participants care to believe).

From the minute he does these things he begins to be a different person, even if he doesn't realize it.

'Even if' is also used in conditional clauses. This use is explained in paragraph 39.

68 You can use 'not that' instead of using 'although' and a negative. For example, instead of saying 'I have decided to leave, although no one will miss me', you can say 'I have decided to leavenot that anyone will miss me'.

Clauses beginning with 'not that' always go after a main clause.

I wouldn't want to give away any secrets at this stagenot that we've got any answers yet.

Kunta continued sleeping in Qmoro's hut for the next seven nightsnot that anyone seemed to notice or care.

exceptions 69 If you want to mention an exception to a statement that you have just made, you use 'except that'.

She treats her daughter the same as her younger boy except that she takes her several times a week to a special clinic.

Nobody said a thing except that one or two asked the if I was better.

This kind of clause is sometimes called an exception clause.

USAGE NOTE 70 When a clause beginning with 'though' ends with a complement, the complement can be brought forward to the beginning of the clause. For example, instead of saying 'Though he was tired, he insisted on coming to the meeting', you can say 'Tired though he was, he insisted on coming to the meeting'.

Tempting though it may be to follow this point through, it is not really relevant and we had better move on.

I had to accept the fact, improbable though it was.

Astute business man though he was, Philip was capable at times of extreme recklessness.

When the complement is an adjective, you can use 'as' instead of 'though'.

Stupid as it sounds, I was so in love with her that I believed her.

When a clause beginning with 'though' ends with an adverb, you can often put the adverb at the beginning of the clause.

Some members of the staff couldn't handle Murray's condition, hard though they tried.

When you are talking about a strong feeling or desire, you can use 'much as' instead of 'although' and an adjunct. For example, instead of saying 'Although I like Venice very much, I couldn't live there' you can say 'Much as I like Venice, I couldn't live there'.

Much as they admired her looks and her manners, they had no wish to marry her.

non-finite clauses 71 'Although', 'though', 'while', and 'whilst' are sometimes used in non-finite concessive clauses. For example, instead of saying 'Whilst he liked cats, he never let them come into his house', you can say 'Whilst liking cats, he never let them come into his house'.

While conceding the importance of freedom of speech, I believe it must be exercised with sensitivity and responsibility.

'Despite' and 'in spite of' can also be used at the beginning of non-finite concessive clauses. 'Despite working hard, I failed my exams' means 'Although I worked hard, I failed my exams'.

Sensible, interested mothers still pay a big part in their children's lives, despite working and having a full-time nanny.

We had two more years of profit in spite of paying higher wages than previous owner.

72 'Although', 'though', 'while', and 'whilst' are also used in front of noun groups, adjective groups, and adjuncts. For example, instead of saying 'Although she was fond of Gregory, she did not love him', you can say 'Although fond of Gregory, she did not love him'. Similarly, instead of saying 'They agreed to his proposal, though they had many reservations', you can say 'They agreed to his proposal, though with many reservations'.

It was an unequal marriage, although a stable and long-testing one.

Though not very attractive physically, she possessed a sense of humour.

They had followed her suggestion, though without much enthusiasm.

'Even if', 'if', and 'albeit' can also be used in this way. 'Albeit' is a formal word.

By 1977 things were beginning to improve, even if, in the view of the Royal Air Farce, not quickly enough.

some pleasant, if unexciting, tunes.

Like mercury, lead affects the brain, albeit in different ways.

Place clauses

73 Sometimes, when you want to talk about the location or position of something, you need to use a clause rather than a simple adjunct. The kind of clause you use is called a place clause.

74 Place clauses usually begin with 'where'.

He said he was happy where he was.

He left it where it lay.

an official policy which encouraged people to stay where they were.

'Where' is also used in relative clauses. This use is explained in paragraphs 104 to 10

75 In formal or literary English, 'where'-clauses are sometimes put in front of a main clause.

Where Kate had stood last night, Maureen now stood.

Where the pink cliffs rose out of the ground there were often narrow tracks winding upwards.

76 When you want to say that something happens or will happen in every place where something else happens, you use 'wherever'.

Soft-stemmed herbs and ferns spread across the ground wherever there was enough light.

In Bali, wherever you go, come across ceremonies.

Wherever I looked, I found patterns.

'Everywhere' can be used instead of 'wherever'.

Everywhere I went, people were angry or suspicious.

77 'Where' and 'wherever' are sometimes used in front of adjectives such as 'possible' and 'necessary'. When they are used like this, they mean 'when' or 'whenever', rather than 'where'. For a full explanation of this use, see paragraph 2

Clauses of manner

78 When you want to talk about someone's behaviour or the wav something is done, you use a clause of manner.

Here is a list of conjunctions used in clauses of manner:

'The way', 'in a way', and 'in the way' are also used in clauses of manner in a similar way to conjunctions. These expressions are often followed by 'that'.

saying how something is done 79 If you simply want to talk about someone's behaviour or the way something is done, you use 'like', 'as', 'the way', 'in a way', or 'in the way'.

Is she often rude and cross like she's been this last month?

I don't understand why he behaves as he does.

I was never allowed to do things the way I wanted to do them.

He was looking at her in a way she did not recognise.

We have to make it work in the way that we want it to.

making comparisons 80 You can also use these expressions to compare the way something is done with the way someone or something else does it.

Surely you don't intend to live by yourself like she does?

Joyce looted at her the way a lot of girls did.

If you want to make a strong comparison, you use 'just as'.

It swims above the sea floor just as its ancestors did.

If you want to make a fairly weak comparison, you use 'much as'.

They are endeavouring to disguise this fact much as Jasper Johns did in the late 1950s.

81 You sometimes want to say that something is done in the way that it would be done if something were the case. You do this by using 'as if' or 'as though'. You use a past tense in the clause of manner.

He holds his head forward as if he has hit it too often on low doorways.

President can't dispose of companies as if people didn't exist.

She treats him as though he was her own son.

He behaved as though it was nothing to be ashamed of.

You also use 'as if or 'as though' after link verbs such as 'feel' or 'look'. You do this when you are comparing someone's feelings or appearance to the feelings or appearance they would have if something were the case.

She felt as if she had a fever.

His hair looked as if it had been combed with his fingers.

Her pink dress and her frilly umbrella made her look as though she had come to a garden party.

In formal English, 'were' can be used instead of 'was' in clauses beginning with 'as if' or 'as though'.

She shook as if she were crying, but she made no sound.

I felt as if I were the centre of the universe.

You talk as though he were already condemned.

You can use 'just' in front of 'as if' or 'as though' for emphasis.

He had no right to run off and leave her alone, just as if she was someone of no importance at all.

82 You can also use 'as if' and 'as though' in non-finite clauses. The clause begins with a 'to'-infinitive or a participle.

As if to remind him, the church clock struck eleven.

He ran off to the house as if escaping.

He shook his head as though dazzled by his own vision.

You can also use 'as if' and 'as though' in front of adjectives and prepositional phrases.

One must row steadily onwards as if intent on one's own business.

He shivered as though with cold.