Describing and identifying things: complementation

Describing and identifying things: complementation

127 If you want to describe someone or something, for example to say who or what they are or what qualities they have, you use one of a special set of verbs. These verbs are called link verbs or copulas.

Cigarette smoking is dangerous to your health.

The station seemed a very small one.

He looked English.

I became enormously fond of her.

The most common link verbs are 'be', 'become', 'look', 'remain', and 'seem'.

complements 128 A link verb links a subject and a complement. The subject, as usual, comes first and the complement comes after the verb. The complement describes or identifies the subject; it is a structure built around either an adjective or a noun.

Her general knowledge is amazing.

The children seemed frightened.

That's a very difficult question.

I'm the Chairman of the Howard League for Penal Reform.

Suleiman Salle became the first President of Eritrea.

The use of link verbs with complements is explained in paragraphs 133 to 155.

Some other intransitive verbs are sometimes used with complements. See paragraphs 156 to 161.

verbs with object complements 129 Some verbs, such as 'make' and 'find' are used with both an object and a complement. The complement describes the object and is called the object complement.

The lights made me sleepy.

I found the forest quite frightening.

These verbs are explained in paragraphs 162 to 17

prepositional phrases 130 Instead of a complement, you can often use a prepositional phrase or another kind of adjunct.

The coffin was in the front garden.

I began to get in a panic.

These structures can also be used instead of object complements.

An attack of malaria can keep a man off work for three days.

For more information about adjuncts that can be used after link verbs, see paragraphs 173 to 18

'it' with 'be' 131 'Be' is often used with 'it' as an impersonal subject. This structure is used to comment on places, situations, actions, experiences, and facts.

It was very quiet in the hut.

It was awkward keeping my news from Ted.

It's strange you should come today.

Some other link verbs are occasionally used in a similar way.

The use of 'it' as an impersonal subject is explained in paragraphs 10.31 to 10.45.

'there' with 'be' 132 'Be' is often used with 'there' as its subject to indicate the existence of something.

There is another explanation.

There is rear bathroom with a panelled bath.

This use of 'there' is explained in paragraphs 10.46 to 10.55.

Describing things: adjectives as complements of link verbs

133 Many adjectives can be used as complements.

I am proud of these people.

They seemed happy.

You don't want them to become suspicious.

They have remained loyal to the Government.

They can be modified in various ways or have various structures after them.

We were very happy.

Your suspicions are entirety correct.

Their hall was larger than his whole flat.

He was capable of extraordinary kindness.

Adjectives used after link verbs, and the structures used with them, are explained in paragraphs 45 to 57.

134 Here is a list of verbs which can be used as link verbs with an adjective as the complement:

Note that the third group of verbs refer to changing or to slaying the same.

135 Some verbs in the second group listed above have special features.

'Appear', 'prove', and 'seem' are often followed by 'to be' and a complement, instead of directly by a complement.

Mary was breathing quietly and seemed to be asleep.

The task of inspecting it proved to be exacting and interesting.

See paragraph 193 for information on using a 'to'-infinitive clause after these verbs.

136 With some verbs in the second group, especially 'feel', 'look', and 'seem', you can use the past participle of a transitive verb as a complement.

The other child looked neglected.

The quarrel of the night before seemed forgotten.

137 When you are using the second group of verbs to say what qualities someone or something seems to have, you may want to mention the person whose viewpoint you are giving. You can do this by using a prepositional phrase beginning with 'to'. It usually comes after the complement.

They looked all right to me.

It sounds unnatural to you, I expect.

138 You cannot use all adjectives with all link verbs. Some verbs, such as 'be' and 'look', are used with a wide range of adjectives and some are used with a restricted range. For example, 'taste' is used only with adjectives which describe the taste of something: 'go' is used primarily with adjectives which indicate colour or madness; and 'fall' is used mainly with 'asleep', 'ill', and 'silent'.

Sea water tastes nasty.

Its flesh tasted sweet.

Jack went red.

The world has gone crazy.

He fell asleep at the table.

The courtroom fell silent.

Saying that one thing is another thing: noun groups as complements of link verbs

139 Noun groups can be used as complements after the following link verbs:

qualities 140 You can use descriptive nouns or noun groups after 'be', 'become', 'remain', 'feel', 'look', 'prove', 'seem', 'sound', 'constitute', and 'represent' to indicate what qualities someone or something has.

Their policy on higher education is an unmitigated disaster.

He always seemed a controlled sort of man.

I feel a bit of a fraud.

The results of these experiments remain a secret.

His talks with the Russians constituted a breakthrough.

'Make' is only used as a link verb with a complement which indicates whether someone is good at a particular job.

He'll make a good president.

using 'one' 141 With 'be', 'become', 'remain', 'feel', 'look', 'prove', 'seem', and 'sound' you can use a noun group based on 'one' instead of using an adjective on its own as a complement.

The noun group consists of 'a' or 'an' followed by the adjective and 'one', if your subject is singular. For example, instead of saying 'The school is large', you can say 'The school is a large one'.

The sound is a familiar one.

The impression the region gives is still a rural one.

If your subject is plural, you can use the adjective followed by 'ones'.

My memories of a London childhood are happy ones.

Another kind of complement consists of 'one' followed by a prepositional phrase or a relative clause.

Their story was indeed one of passion.

The problem is one that always faces a society when it finds itself threatened.

size, age, colour, shape 142 If you want to make a statement about the size, age, colour, or shape of something, you can use a noun group based on 'size', 'age', 'colour', or 'shape' after the link verbs mentioned in the previous paragraph. The noun group begins with a determiner and has an adjective in front of the noun or the preposition 'of' after it.

It's just the right size.

The opposing force would be about the same size.

The walls are a delicate pale cream colour.

His body was the colour of bronze.

It is only the size of a mouse.

143 You can use noun groups beginning with 'a' or 'an', or plural noun groups without a determiner, after 'be', 'become', 'remain', 'comprise', and 'form', to say what type of person or thing someone or something is.

He is a geologist.

Our friend Otto isn't an American.

He is now a teenager.

The air moved a little faster and became a light wind.

They became farmers.

Promises by MPs remained just promises.

These arches formed a barrier to the tide.

144 You can use names or noun groups referring to a particular person or thing after 'be', 'become', 'remain', 'constitute', 'represent', 'comprise', and 'form' to indicate exactly who or what someone or something is.

This is Desiree, my father's second wife.

He's now the Director of the Office of Management and Budget.

The founder of the company is the English theatre director Peter Brook.

The downstairs television room became my room for receiving visitors.

the four young men who comprised the TV crew.

145 When you use a noun group indicating a unique job or position within an organization, you do not have to put a determiner in front of the noun.

At one time you wanted to be President.

He went on to become head of one of the company's largest divisions.

146 Personal pronouns are sometimes used as complements to indicate identity. Note that the object pronouns are used, except in very formal speech or writing.

It's me again.

Possessive pronouns are also used as complements, to indicate identity or to describe something.

This one is yours.

This place is mine.

Indefinite pronouns are sometimes used to describe something, usually with a qualifying structure after them.

it's nothing serious.

You 're someone who does what she wants.

Pronouns are usually used as complements after 'be'.

147 The use of noun groups containing measurement nouns after 'be' and other verbs is explained in paragraphs 269 to 271.

The use of non-finite clauses as complements is explained in paragraphs 10.27 and 10.97.

combinations of verbs and prepositions 148 Some verbs function as link verbs when they are followed by a particular preposition.

The object of the preposition describes or classifies the subject of the verb.

His fear turned into unreasoning panic.

Taylor's fascination with bees developed into an obsession.

An autobiography really amounts to a whole explanation of yourself.

Here is a list of verb and preposition combinations which function as link verbs:

These all have the same basic meaning as 'become', except for 'amount to', which has a similar meaning to 'constitute'.

The phrasal verb 'make up' also functions as a link verb.

Wood made up 65% of the Congo's exports.

Commenting: 'to'-infinitive clauses after complements

149 There are several ways in which a 'to'-infinitive clause can be used after a complement to comment on someone or something in relation to an action.

commenting on behaviour 150 If you want to say that someone shows a particular quality when they do something, you can use a 'to'-infinitive after a descriptive complement.

Most people think I am brave to do this.

I think my father was a brave man to do what he did.

The complement can be an adjective, or it can be a noun group consisting of 'a' or 'an' followed by an adjective and a noun.

commenting on suitability 151 You can say that someone or something would do a particular task better than anyone or anything else by using a 'to'-infinitive clause after a complement.

He was absolutely the right man to go to Paris and negotiate.

She may be an ideal person to look after the children.

He is just the man to cool their reforming zeal.

The complement must be a noun group containing an adjective such as 'right', 'ideal', or 'best', or 'just the' followed by the noun 'person', 'man', or 'woman'. You cannot use adjectives as complements in constructions of this kind. For example, you can say, 'He was the ideal person to lead the expedition', but you cannot say, 'He was ideal to lead the expedition'.

Instead of a 'to'-infinitive clause, you can sometimes use a prepositional phrase beginning with 'for'. In this structure, an adjective can be used as the complement.

He's not the right man for it.

They are ideal for this job.

152 If you want to express your feeling about an event, you can use 'to'-infinitive clause after a complement.

It seemed such a terrible thing to happen.

The 'to'-infinitive consists of 'to' and an intransitive verb, usually 'happen'.

The complement must be a noun group consisting of 'a' or 'an', an adjective, and a noun. You cannot use an adjective alone in construction of this kind. For example, you can say 'It was a wonderful thing to happen', but you cannot say 'It was wonderful to happen'.

153 If you want to say that someone is willing or unwilling to do something, you can use a 'to'-infinitive clause after a complement.

They were willing to risk losing their jobs.

l am anxious to meet Mrs Burton-Cox.

She is eager to succeed.

He is unwilling to answer questions.

I was reluctant to involve myself in this private fight.

The complement must be an adjective such as 'willing' or 'unwilling'. You cannot use noun groups as complements in constructions of this kind. For example, you can say 'He was willing to come', but you cannot say 'He was a willing person to come'.

154 If you want to show your opinion of something by indicating what the experience of doing something to it is like, you can use a 'to'-infinitive clause after a complement.

Its flesh is particularly good to eat.

It's a nice thing to have.

It is a pleasant thing to remember.

She was easy to talk to.

The complement can be an adjective, or it can be a noun group consisting of 'a' or 'an' followed by an adjective and a noun.

Note that the 'to'-infinitive must be the 'to'-infinitive of a transitive verb or of an intransitive verb followed by a preposition.

155 If you want to show your opinion of an action, you can use a transitive 'to'-infinitive clause after a complement.

They thought this was a sensible thing to do.

This is a very foolish attitude to take.

The 'to'-infinitive is usually 'to do', 'to make', or 'to take'.

The complement must be a noun group consisting of 'a' or 'an', an adjective, and a noun. You cannot use an adjective alone in constructions of this kind. For example, you can say 'It was a silly thing to do', but you cannot say 'It was silly to do'.

Describing as well as talking about an action: other verbs with complements

156 Some intransitive verbs can be used with adjectives after them in the same way as link verbs.

George stood motionless for at feast a minute.

Pugin died insane at the early age of forty.

However, it is clear that these verbs are not just link verbs. 'George stood motionless' does not mean the same as 'George was motionless'. In the sentence 'George stood motionless', the verb 'stand' is performing two functions: it is telling us that George was standing, and it is also acting as a link verb between 'George' and the complement 'motionless'.

Here is a list of verbs which can be used in this way:

Ways in which these verbs can be used with complements are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Adjectives are sometimes used in combination with other verbs, but are separated from the main clause by a comma. This use is dealt with in paragraph 8.135.

USAGE NOTE 157 You can use adjectives describing states after 'hang', 'lie', 'sit', and 'stand'.

I used to lie awake watching the rain seep through the roof.

A sparrow lies death in the snow.

Francis Marroux sat ashen-faced behind the wheel.

She stood quite still, facing him.

'Gaze' and 'stare' can be used in a similar way with a limited set of adjectives.

She stared at him wide-eyed.

3,158 You can use some combinations of verbs and adjectives to say that something does not happen to someone or something, or that someone does not have something.

'Go', 'pass', 'emerge', 'escape', and 'survive' are often used in combinations like these. The adjectives they combine with are often formed by adding 'un-' to past participles.

Such men often go unrecognised in their lifetime.

I think that on this occasion the guilty should go unpunished.

Here in Soho he passed unnoticed.

Fortunately we all escaped unscathed.

Mostly, they go unarmed.

The children always went naked.

159 Verbs such as 'blush', 'flame', 'gleam', 'glow', and 'run' can be used with colour adjectives after them to say what colour something is or what colour it becomes.

They blew into the charcoal until it glowed red.

The trees flamed scarlet against the grass.

160 'Die', 'return', and the passive verb 'be born' can have either adjectives or noun groups as complements.

She died young.

He died a disappointed man.

If he had fought in the First World War, he might have returned a slightly different man.

These girls have to work hard because they were born poor.

He was born a slave.

161 Some combinations of verb and adjective are fixed phrases. You cannot use the verb in front of any other adjective.

I wanted to travel light.

The children ran wild.

The response 'Oh don't' was wearing thin with use.

Describing the object of a verb: object complements

162 Some transitive verbs can have a complement after their object. This complement describes the object, and is often called the object complement.

Willie's jokes made her uneasy.

I find the British legal system extremely complicated.

Some of these verbs are used to say that someone or something is changed or given a new job. Others are used to indicate a person's opinion of someone or something.

For information on how to use these verbs in the passive, see paragraph 10.21.

163 If you want to say that someone or something causes a person or thing to have a particular quality, you can use one of a group of transitive verbs, with an adjective as the complement.

He said waltzes made him dizzy.

They're driving me crazy.

Then his captor had knocked him unconscious.

She painted her eyelids deep blue.

He wiped the bottle dry with a dishcloth.

Here is a list of verbs which can be used in this way:

Most of these verbs can have only one adjective or a very small range of adjectives as their complement. However 'make' and 'render' can be used with a wide range of adjectives.

164 You can also use 'keep', 'hold', and 'leave' transitively with an adjective as complement, to say that someone or something is caused to remain in a particular state.

The light through the thin curtains had kept her awake.

Leave the door open

Hold it straight

165 If you want to say that someone is given an important job, you can use 'make', 'appoint', 'crown', or 'elect' with a noun group referring to the job as complement.

In 1910 Asquith made him a junior minister.

The noun used as the complement does not usually have a determiner when it refers to a unique job.

Ramsay MacDonald appointed him Secretary of State for India.

verbs of opinion 166 Some transitive verbs with the general meaning 'consider' can be used with an adjective or noun group as complement to say what someone's opinion of a person or thing is.

They consider him an embarrassment.

Do you find his view of America interesting?

Here is a list of these verbs:

'Prove' can also have an adjective or a noun group as a complement, although it means 'show' not 'consider'.

He had proved them all wrong.

167 These verbs are often used in the passive. 'Believe', 'presume', 'reckon', and 'think' are nearly always used in the passive in these structures.

In many ways the gathering could be considered successful.

30 bombers were believed shot down.

168 All the verbs listed in paragraph 166 except 'account' can also be used with a 'to'-infinitive clause after their object indicating what someone thinks a person or thing is like or does.

She had always considered George Garforth to be a very presentable young man.

see paragraph 207 for information about using a 'to'-infinitive clause after the object of these verbs.

169 You can use the verbs listed in 166 with 'it' as their object followed by a complement and a 'to'-infinitive clause to show someone's opinion of an action. For example, instead of saying 'She found breathing difficult', you can say 'She found it difficult to breathe'.

Gretchen found it difficult to speak.

He thought it right to resign.

He considered it his duty to go.

These are examples of 'it' being used in an impersonal way. For more information about the impersonal use of 'it', see paragraphs 10.31 to 10.45.

describing and naming 170 If you want to say that people use a particular word, word group, or name to describe or refer to someone or something, you can use the word, word group, or name as the complement of one of a group of transitive verbs.

People who did not like him called him dull.

They called him an idiot.

Everyone called her Molly.

He got his trial and was declared innocent.

They named the place 'Tumbo Kutu'.

Here is a list of verbs which can be used in this way. The first group can have an adjective as their complement; the second group can have a noun group as their complement; and the third group can have a name as their complement.

171 The passive verbs 'be entitled', 'be headed', and 'be inscribed' are used with a title or inscription as their complement.

Her pamphlets were boldly headed: 'Hungry Relief Fund'.

172 A few transitive verbs can be used with an adjective as their complement to say that someone or something is in a particular state when something happens to them, or is preferred to be in that state.

More than forty people were burned alive.

a soup which can be served cold.

They found it dead.

Do you want it white or black?

Here is a list of verbs which can be used in this way:

Sometimes a past participle or a present participle describing a state is used as the complement.

She found herself caught in a vicious tidal current.

Maureen came in and found Kate sitting on a straight chair staring at the window.

This participle structure is like a phase structure. See paragraphs 205 and 21

Describing something in other ways: adjuncts instead of complements

173 When you want to give information about someone or something by describing their circumstances, you can sometimes use a prepositional phrase after a link verb, rather than a complement.

174 You can use many kinds of prepositional phrase after 'be'.

He was still in a state of shock.

I walked home with Bill, who was in a very good mood.

She had an older brother who was in the army.

I'm from Dortmund originally.

people who are under pressure.

Summerhill is a school in which play is of the greatest importance.

This book is for any woman who has ever said 'If only I knew where to find help.'

use after other verbs 175 Some other link verbs can be used with a more restricted range of   prepositional phrases.

He seemed in excellent health.

We do ask people to keep in touch with us.

These methods have gradually fallen into disuse.

He got into trouble with the police.

Here is a list of other link verbs that are used with prepositional phrases:

adjuncts of place 176 Some verbs which are used with complements can also be used with adjuncts of place after them.

She's in California.

I'll stay here with the children.

The cat was now lying on the sofa.

Here is a list of these verbs:

For more information about adjuncts of place, see paragraphs 6.53 to 6.72 and 6.82 to 6.9

adjuncts of time 177 'Be' can be used with adjuncts of time to say when something took place or will take place.

That final meeting was on 3 November.

For more information about adjuncts of time, see paragraphs 5.84 to 5.110.

use in transitive structures 178 Prepositional phrases can also be used in transitive structures to say that someone or something is caused to be in a particular state.

They'll get me our of trouble.

The fear of being discovered keep me on the alert.

Indicating what role something has or how it is perceived: the preposition 'as'

179 Prepositional phrases beginning with 'as' can be used after some intransitive and transitive verbs. The noun groups following 'as' have a similar meaning to complements.

use in intransitive structures 180 Prepositional phrases beginning with 'as' can be used after certain intransitive verbs to indicate what role or function the subject has, or what identity they pretend to have.

Bleach removes colour art acts as an antiseptic and deodoriser.

He served as Kennedy's ambassador to India.

They attempted to get an agent posing as a telephone repairman into the Stein residence.

Here is a list of verbs which can be followed by 'as' in this way:

'Work' can also be used in this way, when it has a human subject.

My father worked as a draughtsman in a shipyard.

181 A number of transitive verbs can be used with 'as' after their object.

With some, a noun group is used after 'as'. The 'as' phrase describes the role of the object or what it is thought to be.

I wanted to use him as an agent.

I treated business as a game.

Here is a list of transitive verbs which can be used with 'as' and a noun group:

With others, an adjective is used after 'as'. The adjective indicates what quality or characteristic the object is thought to have.

Party members and officials described him as brilliant.

They regarded manual work as degrading.

Here is a list of transitive verbs which can be used with 'as' and an adjective:

182 'Look upon', 'refer to', and 'think of' can also be used with 'as' in this way. 'As' must be followed by a noun group when used with 'refer to'.

In some households the man was referred to as 'the master'.