Discussion Questions and Activities

Discussion Questions and Activities

This section is meant to give the student an opportunity to test the knowledge and skills acquired in working with the book. Some of the exercises are meant as a challenge to those students who wish to go beyond the topics covered in this book. They encourage the student to find creative solutions to new problems and may involve the use of further sources (dictionaries, grammar books, literary works). The exercises can be used as a basis for seminar discussions and for preparing exams.

1 Exercises related to chapter 1

I. Answer these questions:

1. How could you explain the names of structural, transformational and functional linguistics that developed in the 20th century?

2. What was the study of language influenced by from 1960 to 1990?

3. What does cognitive science study according to Gardner?

4. What is the common area analyzed by both cognitive science and cognitive linguistics?

5. When can the beginnings of cognitive linguistics as a coherent identifiable approach be traced?

6. Who contributed to the theoretical foundations of this approach and provided empirical data for it?

7. How does the cognitive linguists' view of meaning differ from the generative grammarians'?

8. Define cognitive linguistics and the notions of 'concept', 'conceptual category', 'construal'.

9. Why can nouns such as committee, crowd and team take either a singular or plural verb form? Are there any other grammatical reflexes of this contrast between singular construal and plural construal?

10. Is there any difference between 'Drinking and singing is fun' and Drinking and singing are fun'?

II. Find equivalents of the terms pavement, grand piano, snowdrop, horseshoe and tailcoat in the languages you know and comment on the way each language construes the same entity.

III. Give alternative codings for each of the situations coded by the following sentences and say what factor or factors would trigger the alternative coding.

1. The post office is next to the bank.

2. The red car is behind the tree.

3. The red car is behind the blue one.

4. Jim married Mary in 1960.

IV. Consider the sentence 'John went to London in 1998'. An alternative coding may be 'John came to London in 1998'. What alternatives might there be for the expressions John, went, to London, in 1998, and what alternative factors would trigger such alternative codings?

2 Exercises related to chapter 2

I. Answer these questions

1. What are the assumptions of the classical approach to categories?

2. Give examples of concepts that can be defined in terms of the necessary and sufficient conditions (NCS) approach.

3. How are defining features for concepts treated in the classical approach?

4. What are category boundaries like according to the classical view?

5. What does the classical view claim in terms of category membership?

6. Who are the proponents of the feature approach to concepts?

7. Why is the feature list view also called the probabilistic view?

8. What are the gains of the feature approach?

II. Identify the necessary and non-necessary features of these concepts:

1. bird: 'feathered', 'flies', 'winged', 'sings', 'small size', 'lays eggs', 'has a beak', 'yellow', 'caged'

2. table: 'made of wood', 'has four legs', 'has a top capable of support', 'has a flat and horizontal top'

3. chair: 'intended for sitting', 'has back support', 'has support for arms', 'is short'

III. Answer these questions:

1. What do Lakoff and Johnson propose for an adequate account of meaning?

2. Do colours exist independently of human perception and cognition?

3. Why is the number of colours different in some languages?

4. What are the characteristics of basic colour terms?

5. What other conceptual area is culture-dependent?

6. How is the prototype viewed in the first stage of the prototype theory?

7. What are the central members of the categories BIRD, FRUIT, FURNITURE, WEAPON and SPORT?

8. What kind of members are bat, scooter, skates, tomato, avocado?

9. What are prototype effects? Give examples.

10. Which discrepancies bring about prototypical effects?

What are schemas?

12. How does categorization by schemas differ from categorization by prototypes?

13. Are the two modes of categorization, i.e. by prototypes and by schemas, incompatible or related?

14. What is the subsequent role of a schema in the extension of a category?

15. What is the schema that functions in the metaphorical extension of tree?

IV. Select typical examples of the categories NEWSPAPER, JOURNAL, MAGAZINE and PERIODICAL. Do you know publications which illustrate the fuzziness of the boundaries between these neighbouring categories?

V. Comment on the following:

(a) Prototype theory, as it is evolving, is changing our idea of the most fundamental of human capacities the capacity to categorize.

(Lakoff, 1987: 8)

(b) But a large proportion of our categories are not categories of things; they are categories of abstract entities. We categorize events, actions, emotions, spatial relationships, social relationships, and abstract entities of an enormous range

(Lakoff, 1987: 6)

(c) The approach to prototype theory . suggests that human categorization is essentially a matter of both human experience and imagination of perception, motor activity and culture on the one hand and of metaphor, metonymy and mental imagery on the other.

(Lakoff, 1987: 8)

VI. Answer these questions:

1. How are definitions for words reconsidered in terms of the prototype theory?

2. What is the correlation between prototype theory and sense relations such as hyponymy and antonymy?

3. Can semantic field theory benefit the gains of prototype theory? How?

4. What are the members of the verb categories analyzed by Pulman?

5. What is the relation between unmarked members in a consonant pair and prototypicality?

6. Can the prototype phenomenon be found among linguistic categories? If yes, give examples.

7. What are the properties defining  a prototypical lie?

8. How is the prototype principle described by Tsohatzidis?

9. What is Lakoff's view of polysemy?

10. Name the characteristics of prototypical and peripheral senses in general by analogy with prototypical members of a category?

Is the prototype approach applicable to the semantic analysis of animal terms? How?

VII. Consider the following senses of skirt(s):

1. a piece of outer clothing worn by women and girls which hangs down from the waist

2. the part of a dress or coat that hangs down from the waist

3. the flaps on a saddle that protect a rider's legs

4. a circular flap as around the base of a hovercraft

5. 'a bit of skirt': an offensive expression meaning 'an atttractive woman'

6. skirts of a forset, hill or village, etc. the outside edge of a forest, etc.

7. a new road skirting the suburb

8. they skirted rounded the bus.

9. He was skirting the issue. (= avoid)

(i) What is likely to be the prototypical meaning and point out which process of meaning extension (generalization, metaphor, metonymy, specialization) you find in each of the other cases. Give reasons for your answers.

(ii) How are the meanings in 6, 7, 8, 9) related to the prototypical meaning? What is the difference between (6) versus 7, 8, 9)?

(iii) Which of these meanings would lend themselves for a classical definition? Which of them would not? Give reasons for your answers.

VIII. Answer these questions:

1. Who was the first to apply prototype theory to the study of word meaning?

2. What is Geeraerts' definition of the prototypical meaning?

3. What is the core meaning of a polysemantic word? Give examples.

4. How can uses and abuses of prototypes in semantic theory be avoided?

5. What is componential analysis often associated with?

6. What is a construal rule?

7. What do you know about the verbal use of Mass nouns?

8. What is the main shortcoming with core models?

9. How does a prototypical model differ from a core model?

10. What can determine the change of the prototypical centre in a conceptual category?

What is a complementary model based on?

12. What can a complementary model account for?

13. What are the characteristics of prototypical categories?

14. How are features of meaning classified according to Beatrice Warren?

IX. Draw up a radial network for the different senses of paper:

(a) The letter was written on good quality paper.

(b) I need this quotation on paper.

(c) The police officer asked to see my car papers.

(d) The examination consisted of two 3 hour papers.

(e) The professor is due to give his paper at 4 o'clock.

(f) Seat sales are down, so we'll have to paper the house this afternoon.

X. Answer these questions:

1. Where does the phrase 'family resemblance' come from?

2. What does the family resemblance principle imply?

3. Do all uses of the verb climb have a common core?

4. How are features shared by the meanings of the verb climb?

5. What notions do cognitive linguists use for the discussion of prepositions? Define these notions.

6. What parameters are used in analysing the spatial senses of over?

7. Exemplify the family resemblance principle by some uses of over.

8. What other notion is used when discussing the polysemy of English prepositions?

9. Explain the metaphorical use of over in 'get over a difficulty'.

10. What representation of word meaning originates in the family resemblance model?

XI. In English, the same form may sometimes be a member of up to five different word classes. Specify the word class of round in each of the following examples:

1. My friend is coming round the corner.

2. That was the first round table I saw.

3. She came round when they got something to drink.

4. Let's round off with an exercise.

5. After school we can play a round of golf.

XII. Comment on the following:

The concept of feeling includes a semantic field of each category that consists of abstract entities with prototypical scenarios that are related among them by a family resemblance relationship, each entity being regarded as prototype effects of that category.

3 Exercises related to chapter 3

I. Answer these questions:

Is the prototype theory concerned only with the internal structure of a category?

What are the general levels of categorization in a taxonomic hierarchy?

What kind of structure do basic level categories usually have?

What is the most significant level of categorization from the point of view of speakers of language?

Why are basic level categories said to be the most salient from a conceptual point of view?

What classes do basic level concepts include? Give examples.

Characterize basic level terms from the point of view of (a) their usage (b) their morphology (c) their acquisition

How do basic level categories differ from subordinate and superordinate categories on terms of their gestalt perception?

Which level of categorization displays the largest bundle of naturally correlated attributes? Why?

What role do attributes play in categorization?

What are superordinate categories like in terms of gestalt?

How do superordinate categories differ from basic level categories in terms of (a) attributes (b) category structure?

Mention at least three characteristics of superordinate terms.

Do basic categories always accept only one superordinate category?

Compare subordinate categories with the other level categories in terms of attributes.

How are subordinate categories rendered morphologically?

Give examples of noun compounds where the basic level categories involved provide attributes for the subordinate category.

What source categories are likely to yield more attributes to subordinate categories?

Is the head category always dominant in subordinate categories?

Comment on the metaphor and metonymy underlying subordinate terms such as daisy, dandelion, buttercup, terrier and dime.

II. For the notion of footwear think of or find as many words as you can, including such terms as boots, slippers, trainers, pumps, flip-flops, mountain boots, shoes, wellingtons, and add terms such as indoor footwear, sportswear, etc.

(a) Which of these words are superordinate terms and which ones subordinate terms?

(b) Which of these terms could be considered basic level terms? Give reasons for your answer.

(c) Which of these words are highly entrenched, and which ones aren't? Give reasons for your answer.

III. What are the basic level categories that subsume these subordinate categories: leggings, T-shirt, pleated skirt, culottes, push chair, poppy, collie, bungalow

IV. Try to build up the taxonomic hierarchy of terms for birds in English, including at least chicken, eagle, sparrow, duck, hen, humming bird, chick, ostrich, fowl, owl, penguin, robin, falcon. Find names for each group.

V. Arrange the following categories into a taxonomy and indicate the degree of prototypicality of the members at each level: table, swivel chair, telephone, furniture, kitchen chair, armchair, TV set, rocking chair, sofa, newspaper rack, lamp, highchair.

4 Exercises related to chapter 4

I. Answer these questions:

1. What are cognitive domains?

2. What are the two major types of cognitive domains?

3. Define and exemplify basic domains.

4. Explain the connection between cognitive domains and meaning.

5. What is a construal?

6. Discuss the terms 'profiling' and 'profile.

7. What is the prominent participant called in a spatial relation?

8. What is 'viewing arrangement' according to Langacker?

9. When is the relation between speaker/hearer and event made explicit? Give examples.

10. What are image schemas?

Discuss the functions of image schemas.

12. How do you account for the relative pervasiveness of the container schema?

13. Give examples of daily IN-OUT activities.

14. Define and characterize the PART-WHOLE schema.

15. Give examples of conceptualizations in terms of the PART-WHOLE and LINK schemas.

16. What is the CENTRE-PERIPHERY schema abstracted from?

17. What type of schema serves to understand motion events?

18. Give examples of metaphorical mappings of the SOURCE-PATH-GOAL schema and point to the structural elements it implies.

19. What are the applications of image schemas to grammar, semantics and phonology?

II. Explain which of the elementary domains (space, temperature, taste, pressure, pain, colour, etc.) are called up when the following cognitive units are foregrounded: TABLE, CAT, CAKE, SODA, KISS. Which of them are particularly important in each case?

III. Profiling cognitive domains normally goes through many stages involving elementary and more specific domains. Which domains contribute to profiling FINGER NAIL, KEY HOLE and WINDSCREEN WIPER?

IV. Identify the trajectors (moving entities) and the landmarks (points/containers/surfaces) in the following sentences:

1. My friend will be waiting at the station.
2. The lamp fell off the ceiling
3. The swimmer crawled out of the water.
4. There was an interesting article in the yesterday newspaper.
5. John went home.
6. The plane managed to land on the runway.
7. The lamp is hooked on the ceiling.
8. There is a fly on the wall.
9. He put his handkerchief in his pocket.
10. Ten convicts broke out of the prison.

V. How can the following sentences be interpreted in terms of perspective or viewing arrangement:

1. John married that beautiful Japanese girl.

2. Did you attend the wedding?

3. Then you must have seen her wonderful dress.

4. It must have cost a fortune.

5. Like all the other guests, I was fascinated.

VI. Discuss the semantic values attached to UP-DOWN orientation in these linguistic examples:

1. an upstanding citizen, a low trick, a low-down thing

2. lofty position, to rise to the top, the bottom of social hierarchy

3. high spirits, to be depressed, to be low

4. in top shape, to fall ill, to drop dead

V. Test your knowledge of the meanings of OUT by giving synonyms, antonyms or paraphrases for the following:

1. an outpatient. 6. an outing an outgrowth 16. at the outset

2. the outskirts 7. a sell-out 12. an outline 17. an outsider

3. a dropout  8. an outburst 13. a bleak outlook 18. an outlet

4. a handout  9. a blackout 14. an outpouring 19. an outfit

5. an outcry 10. a nuclear fallout 15. an output 20. the outcome

VI. Explain the meaning of the following and why IN is used.

1. Our friends moved in for a fortnight.
2. I was unable to put in/get in a word.
3. The radar piloted the plane in.
4. I first have to work myself into the situation or job.
5. Your remark fitted in nicely with the other remarks.
6. You should throw in as many suggestions as possible.
7. Eventually the police had to step in.
8. The students organized a sit-in in the rectors office.
9. The professor allowed me to sit in (on the course).
10. What time do I have to check in for my plane?
11. Please drop in any time
12. We were jammed in on the motorway.
13. Hunted down by tens of policemen, the criminal turned himself in.
14. Straw hats are in again.
15. Youll be in for it, boy!
16. He knows the ins and outs of the affair.
17. My in-laws are coming tonight.

VII. What image schemas are involved in the following metaphorical expressions?

1. He is full of himself.
2. Now, to bring us back to the issue,
3. He must be out of his mind to say that.
4. I cannot go to school, I am down with flu.
5. We all have ups and downs in life.
6. I want to move banks (change ones banking).
7. Things are looking up again.
8. The officer has inside information.
9. His action brought me back to my senses.
10. I feel down now my girlfriend has left me.
11. She outclassed all her competitors.

Exercises related to chapter 5

I. Answer these questions:

1. What is causation particularly influenced by?

2. What properties define prototypical causation?

3. What characteristics are involved in less typical instances of causation?

4. Does word order in English iconically reflect the natural temporal ordering in causal expressions?

5. Is the superordinate category of emotion a conceptual metonymy or metaphor?

6. Are emotions universal or culture-specific?

7. What kind of emotional processes do contexts with at-phrases evoke? Refer to emotional intensity in expressions such as feel melancholy, grow guilty, feel grief, disguise ones dismay, etc.

8. Are causal prepositional phrases with about associated with events or entities?

II. Examine the following emotion categories: PRIDE, ADMIRATION, GRATITUDE, PITY, EMBARASSMENT, SHAME, GUILT. Can you see a close relationship between these categories and any of the basic emotion categories? Find reasons why they are less basic.

III. Consider the sentences below which reflect various degrees of causality. Arrange them from the most prototypical to the least prototypical instance of causation.

1. He died from an overdose of drugs.

2. The country is hit by crime.

3. We often laughed over this story.

4. Many young drivers are killed through accidents.

5. I am delighted about my promotion.

6. He died of heart failure.

IV. Discuss the structure of an emotion folk scenario in these sentences:

1. She was grinning at the information she had expected.
2. I felt outraged at the quality of the training.
3. He snorted at the prospect of being invited.
4. I felt a pang of envy at this sight.
5. I grew guilty at the anger in his eyes.

V. Comment of the meanings of the prepositions at, with, about and over in these sentences:

1. Mrs. Smith was very pleased about the arrangement.

2. We had words over the fact we had fought.

3. The captain wasnt very pleased about my having seen see.

4. I had clashed with him over Percys kneeling figure.

5. Amy seemed pleased at the idea of leaving early.

6. The boy whimpered over his smashed head.

7. They were all very pleased with the news.

8. They fell in disgrace over their fathers debts.

9. I nearly lost a stripe over you.

10. Why do you take so much care over your students?

Exercises related to chapter 6

I. Answer these questions:

1. How does the contemporary theory of metaphor differ from the classical theory?

2. What are the everyday abstract concepts that can be characterized in terms of metaphor?

3. How does the study of everyday metaphor contribute to the study of literary metaphor?

4. What does the word 'metaphor' in the old theory correspond to in contemporary theory?

5. Why is Reddy's article on the conduit metaphor considered to be seminal for the contemporary theory of metaphor?

6. Does the study of conventional metaphor play any role in understanding poetic metaphor? What is it?

7. What entities in the domain of love were found to correspond systematically to entities in the domain of a journey?

8. What is the contemporary theorists' argument that metaphors are not mere words?

9. What component of the metaphor phenomenon is stressed by Lakoff? Why?

10. What can be said about linguistic expressions about journeys that are used to characterize love?

What is the contemporary metaphor theorists' view of idioms?

II. Fill in the blanks from this table:

Target Domain	Source Domain	Linguistic realization
ARGUMENT		He shot down all of my arguments.
ANGER		He is boiling with anger.
	LIGHT	She shining with joy.
MORE	.. ..	Oil prices are rising again.
TIME	MONEY
	A LIMITED RESOURCE	We're running out of time.
TIME	A VALUABLE COMMODITY
TIME		The last year has flown by.
	MACHINE	My mind isn't operating today.
LIFE	GAMBLING GAME
	NUTRIENT	Im starved for affection.
LOVE		He is burning with love.
	PERSON	Politicians are blamed for the ills of society.
THEORY		We have to construct a new theory.

III. Which of the mappings that structure Reddy's conduit metaphor i.e. IDEAS ARE OBJECTS, LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAINERS, COMMUNICATION IS SENDING are instantiated below?

1. It's difficult to put my ideas into words

2. When you have a good idea, try to capture it immediately in words.

3. Try to pack more thought into fewer words.

4. You can't simply stuff ideas into a sentence any old way.

5. The meaning is right there in the words.

6. Your words seem hollow.

7. The sentence is without meaning.

8. Whatever she meant, it's locked up in that cryptic little verse forever.

9. His words don't carry much conviction.

10. You're finally getting through to me.

That section is loaded with good ideas.

12. There isn't much content in that sentence.

IV. Explain the meanings of these idioms by discussing the conventional images that are associated with them. Which of these idioms lose their metaphoricity when translated into Romanian?

1. keep someone at arm's length

2. spin the wheels

3. spill the beans

4. a rolling stone gathers no moss

5. pull strings

6. add fuel to the fire/flames

7. look for a needle in a haystack

8. make a bee line

9. leave no stone unturned

10. put/set the cat among the pigeons

wait for the cat to jump/to see which way the cat jumps

V. Give examples of abstract concepts having as source domains FIRE, WAR, FOOD, CONQUEST

Example:

ANGER: He was breathing fire.

VI. Give examples of terms or expressions instantiating the conceptual metaphor HUMAN IS PLANT which has the following submappings:

a.       PARTICULAR HUMANS = KINDS OF PLANTS: e.g. gooseberry

b.      PROPERTIES OF HUMANS = PROPERTIES OF PLANTS: e.g. bushy

c.       ACTIONS ON/OF HUMANS = ACTIONS ON/OF PLANTS: e.g. trim

VII. Analyse one of Shakespeare's sonnets in terms of the cognitive metaphor HUMAN = PLANT.

7 Exercises related to chapter 7

I. Answer these questions:

1. What level do mapped categories generally belong to?

2. Why is metaphor thought to be central to grammar, too?

3. How is QUANTITY conceptualized metaphorically?

4. What is the basic concept of TIME understood by?

5. What does the Invariance Principle claim and explain?

6. How can event structure be understood metaphorically?

7. Give examples of metaphor in which lower mappings in the hierarchy inherit the structures of the higher mappings.

II. Read the sentences below and determine (a) the source concept that each of the examples share and (b) the various target domains.

1. We couldnt get a room in any of the top hotels.

2. She was feeling really high.

3. He is young and upwardly mobile.

4. It was an uplifting experience.

5. Your highness is very moody today.

6. After three months of exercise he was in top form.

7. With this promotion she became a top dog.

8. For the first time in months, my spirits soared.

9. He is one of the worlds top journalists.

10. Only top politicians could attend this top secret meeting.

This new invention is the high noon of his career.

12. The upper class spend their time on the Riviera during high season.

13. Sylvies speech was the highlight of the conference.

III. Find linguistic evidence to show that metaphors for life, love and careers are more restricted culturally.

IV. Discuss how the abstract category TIME is conceptualized in some of Shakespeares sonnets (e.g. 12, 15, 16, 19, 104 and 115).

8 Exercises related to chapter 8

I. Fill in the blanks from this table:

II. Discuss the attributes, entities and propositions that are transferred from the experiential domain of sight to the experiential domain of understanding in these sentences:

1. I cant see the solution
2. His theory has thrown light on this problem. Now it is easier to understand.
3. The candidates speech was not really transparent enough. There were many dark points in it. So we couldnt understand all of it.

III. Provide linguistic support for the claim that the mappings taking place between the vocabulary of physical perception as the source domain and the vocabulary of reasoning and emotion as the target domain are cross-linguistic. Mention whether there are instances when each language has developed further meanings.

IV. Comment on the metaphorical extensions of these terms:

1. see hear - taste touch

warm icy frosty cold

white black blue yellow - red

V. What are the instantiations of these conceptual metaphors:

IDEAS ARE MONEY.

UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING.

IDEAS ARE OBJECTS.

IDEAS ARE ANIMATE BEINGS.

PROGRESS IS FORWARD MOVEMENT.

COGNITION IS PERCEPTION.

IDEAS ARE PERCEPTIONS

BAD SMELL IS BAD CHARACTER

Example:

1. She spends her time unwisely.

2. I see what you mean.

3. Sally gave the idea to Sam.

9 Exercises related to chapter 9

I. Answer these questions:

Are metaphor and metonymy rhetorical figures?

What is the fundamental achievement of the cognitive contribution to the study of metonymy?

Which fields provided evidence supporting the understanding of metonymy as a cognitive tool?

Who were the first to describe metonymy in cognitive terms?

What role of metonymy do Lakoff and Johnson stress in their 1980 book?

What does current debate on metonymy focus on?

How is conceptual metonymy defined?

What is needed for an adequate definition of metonymy?

Explain the notion of cognitive domain.

What is an idealised cognitive model?

What is central for the understanding of conceptual metonymy?

Explain how domain shift is achieved through domain highlighting in We all heard the trumpet and The trumpet could not come today.

What types of ICMs belong into the whole-part metonymic configuration?

What types of ICMs are included in the part-part metonymic configuration?

Discuss the metonymies which are related to the action ICM.

Are metonymic relations always reversible?

What favours the conventionalization of a metonymy?

What conceptual areas do cognitive principles pertain to?

Give examples of metonymies motivated by cognitive principles related to human experience.

Discuss the communicative principles that contribute to determining the selection of a metonymic vehicle.

II. Point out and comment on instances of metonymy and synecdoche in these sentences:

1. They are taking on hands down at the factory
2. We had to pay ten dollars a head just to get into the concert.
3. Mary Sue lives four doors down the street.
4. John is talking to the skirt over at the bar.
5. The pen is mightier than the sword.
6. She has recently been appointed to the bench.
7. She has always been loyal to the flag.
8. From now on they will pursue their goals through the ballot box.
9. They prefer the bullet to the ballot box.
10. Does he own any Hemingway?
11. Steam irons never have any trouble finding roommates.
12. John fired the tuxedo because he kept dropping the tray.
13. War is war.

III. Mention the types of ICMs the metonymies in the following sentences are related to:

1. Washington is insensitive to the needs of the people.
2. He bought a Stradivarius last autumn.
3. She lent an ear to my words.
4. Mary has watery eyes.
5. Her eyes made me shudder.
6. His heart was throbbing with pride.
7. Boys will be boys.
8. On the boat cruise well first land in Casa Blanca.
9. Bushs America loses hearts and minds. (Guardian, June 4, 2003)
10. EU presses poor to accept CAP (common agricultural policy). (Guardian, June 4, 2003).
11. We cant stomach any more articles on metonymy.
12. This furniture is made of oak.
13. Please, give me todays paper.

IV. Explain the phenomenon of chained metonymy in the following:

1. Wall Street is in panic.
2. His sister heads the policy unit.
3. Shakespeare is on the top shelf and it is a good quality edition.

V. Discuss the type of metonymic relations in these sentences:

1. Mary nursed the sick soldiers.

2. I bicycle to town daily.

3. You must powder the aspirin

4. Before going home, the fisherman beached his boat.

5. All planes are grounded until the fog clears.

6. His words pricked my ears.

7. Hollywood is putting out terrible movies.

8. Politics is politics.

9. He does a brilliant George Bush.

10. The divers surfaced near boat.

Watergate changed our politics.

12. They went to the altar.

13. After the exam the teacher expressed disappointment at the students performance.

VI. Look up the meanings of the following words in a dictionary: field, flag, leg, flood, flower, ruin. How can you account for the different senses of these words with the help of metonymy?

VII. Consider the adjective healthy used in these senses: (1) healthy body, (2) healthy complexion and (3) healthy exercise. What metonymic relationships do you recognise in these cases?

VIII. Answer these questions:

1. What type of nouns does the instrument-act metonymic principle apply to?

2. What metonymic principle applies to words denoting occupations and roles?

3. What is the meaning of location denominal verbs?

4. What nouns are converted into goal (result) denominal verbs?

IX. Explicate the meanings underlying instances of conversion in these sentences:

1. John has authored three chapters of that book.
2. Jim porched the newspaper.
3. The whale beached itself.
4. The submarine surfaced.
5. He can ape his teacher perfectly.
6. They shouldered the boat and took it down to the river.
7. Goosens fathered the concept of metaphtonymy.
8. She championed the cause of religious freedom.
9. The champions mouthed clichs about what they hoped to do at the World Cup.
10. The assistants price the items and stack them on the shelves.

10 Exercises related to chapter 10

I. Answer these questions:

1. What is the shared characteristic of metaphor and metonymy?

2. What is the main difference between metaphor and metonymy?

3. What other characteristics distinguishes metaphor from metonymy?

4. What is the most common use of metonymy? Give an example.

5. What is the prototypical use of metaphor? Give an example.

6. Mention at least one instance of an intermediate category between the two poles of the metaphor-metonymy continuum.

7. Explain the notion metaphor from metonymy.

8. What types of metonymic basis for metaphor does Radden distinguish?

9. Explain the (metonymic) common experiential basis of the MORE IS UP conceptual metaphor.

10. What type of metonymic basis is involved by the metaphor PURPOSES ARE DESTINATIONS (e.g. go to church, go to bed, etc.)?

12. How does the relation between a category and its members manifest itself metonymically?

13. What are the culturally modelled areas that account for metonymy-based metaphors?

14. What is Taylors view on the metonymic motivation of synesthetic metaphors?

15. Are metaphors always conceptually dependent on metonymies?

16. What is the conceptual pre-requisite for metaphorical expressions such as bite ones tongue off, shoot ones tongue off, give a big hand, win/prick ones ear?

II. The word head has more than sixty senses and contexts of usage. Consider the small selection below and explain which meaning extensions are metaphors and which are metonymies:

1. your mind: My head is full of strange thoughts.

2. understanding: That joke went over his head

3. leader or person in charge of a group or community: The queen is still the head of state.

4. top or front of something: I prefer my beer without a head of foam

5. (for) each person: We paid ten pounds a head for the meal.

III. Consider the meanings of tea recorded by Collins Dictionary (1979: 1490). Comment on how the original sense was extended, viz. metaphor or metonymy:

1. an evergreen shrub or smaller tree

2. the dried shredded leaves, used to make a beverage by infusion in boiling water

3. such a beverage served hot or iced

4. any of various plants that are similar or that are used to make a tealike beverage

5. any such beverage

6. afternoon tea, chiefly Brit. A light meal eaten in the afternoon, usually consisting of tea and cakes, biscuits or sandwiches

7. high tea, Brit. and Austr. the main evening meal

8. US a slang term for marijuana

IV. Find lexicalized metaphors which have body-parts as their source domains. Mention which parts of the human body are particularly productive as source concepts and try to explain why this is so.

V. Explain the mechanism of sense extension in the figurative uses of these words: climb, mouth, beaver, writing, tongue, reader, paper, board, dry, sharp, snarl, purr, grunt.

VI. Find more linguistic evidence showing that ANGER metaphors are motivated by a group of metonymies in which certain physiological effects of anger stand for this emotion.

Example:

Body heat: Dont get hot under the collar!

Internal pressure: When I found out, I almost burst a blood vessel.

Agitation: I was hopping mad.