Focusing on clauses or clause elements using adjuncts

Focusing on clauses or clause elements using adjuncts

Commenting on your statement: sentence adjuncts

56 There are many adjuncts that are used to indicate your attitude to what you are saying or to make your hearer have a particular attitude to what you are saying. These are dealt with in paragraphs 57 to 72.

Others are used to show a particular link between sentences. These are dealt with in paragraphs 73 to 81.

There are also some that are used to make a statement narrower or to focus attention on a particular thing that it applies to. These are dealt with in paragraphs 87 to 91.

All these adjuncts are called sentence adjuncts because they apply to the whole sentence they are in. They are sometimes called sentence adverbials or disjuncts in other grammars.

Sentence adjuncts are often placed at the beginning of a sentence. Some are also used in other positions, as shown in the examples given below, but they are usually separated from the words around them by intonation or by commas, to show that they apply to the whole sentence.

For more general information about adjuncts, see Chapter

Indicating your attitude to what you are saying

57 One group of sentence adjuncts is used to indicate your reaction to, or your opinion of, the fact or event you are talking about.

Surprisingly, most of my help came from the technicians.

Luckily, I had seen the play before so I knew what it was about.

It is fortunately not a bad bump, and Henry is only slightly hurt.

Interestingly, the solution adopted in these two countries was the same.

The following adjuncts are commonly used in this way:

One of the uses of 'at least' and 'anyway' is to indicate that you are pleased about the fact you are giving, although there may be other less desirable facts.

At least we're agreed on something.

He fell back with a look of surprise-dead. It's quick, anyway, I thought.

USAGE NOTE 58 There are a small number of adverbs which are often followed by 'enough' when used to indicate your opinion of what you are talking about.

Interestingly enough, this proportion has not increased.

Funnily enough, old people seem to love bingo.

I find myself strangely enough in agreement with John for a change.

distancing and qualifying   59 There are a number of sentence adjuncts which have the effect showing that you are not completely committed to the truth of your statement.

Rats eat practically anything.

If was almost a relief when the race was over.

There are, in effect, still trapped in a history which they do not understand.

In a way I liked her better than Mark.

The following adjuncts are used in this way:

Note that 'almost', 'practically', and 'virtually' are not used at the beginning of a clause.

Expressions such as 'I think', 'I believe', and 'I suppose' are also used to indicate your lack of commitment to the truth of what you are saying.

indicating viewpoint 60 With adverbs such as 'luckily', 'fortunately', 'happily', and 'unfortunately', you can indicate whose viewpoint you are giving by adding 'for' and a noun group referring to the person.

'Does he do his fair share of the household chores?''Oh yes, fortunately for me.'

Luckily for me and them, love did eventually grow and flourish.

indicating quality of the agent 61 Another group of sentence adjuncts is used to indicate the quality you think someone showed by doing an action. They are formed from adjectives which can be used to describe people, and are often placed after the subject of the sentence and in front of the verb.

The League of friends generously provided about five thousand pounds.

Paul Gayner is rightly famed for his menu for vegetarians.

She very kindly arranged a beautiful lunch.

Foolishly, we had said we would do the decorating.

The following adverbs are used in this way:

indicating your justification for a statement 62 If you are basing your statement on something that you have seen, heard, or read, you can use a sentence adverb to indicate this. For example, if you can see that an object has been made by hand, you might say 'It is obviously made by hand.'

His friend was obviously impressed.

Higgins evidently knew nothing about their efforts.

Apparently they had a row.

These are some common adverbs used in this way:

63 People often use sentence adjuncts to persuade someone to agree with them. By using the adjunct, they indicate that they are assuming that what they are saying is obvious.

Obviously I can't do the whole lot myself.

Price, of course, is a critical factor.

The following adjuncts are often used in this way:

64 A number of adjuncts are used to indicate whether a situation actually exists or whether it merely seems to exist, or might exist.

Even sympathetic observers have said that what he's really doing is protecting his own interests.

Germs were allegedly scattered from airplanes.

Extra cash is probably the best present.

The following adjuncts are used like this:

The adverbs in the second group are often used in front of adjectives.

We drove along apparently empty streets.

They pointed out that it would be theoretically possible to lay a cable from a satellite to earth.

65 If you want to make it clear what your attitude is to what you are saying, you can use a sentence adjunct.

Frankly, the more I hear about him, the less I like him.

In my opinion it was probably a mistake.

In fairness it should be said that he cannot be accused of a lack of objectivity.

Here is a list of some of the common adjuncts used in this way:

66 Another way of indicating the sort of statement you are making is to use 'to be' followed by an adjective, or 'to put it' followed by an adverb.

I don't really know, to be honest.

To put it crudely, all unions have got the responsibility of looking after their members.

politeness 67 When someone who is making a request wants to be polite, they use the sentence adverb 'please'.

May I have a word with you, please?

Would you please remove your glasses?

Please be careful.

Stating your field of reference

specification 68 When you are making it clear what aspect of something you are talking about, you use sentence adverbs formed from classifying adjectives. For example, if you want to say that something is important in the field of politics or from a political point of view, you can say that it is 'politically important'. These adverbs often come in front of an adjective, or at the beginning or end of a clause.

It would have been politically damaging for him to retreat.

Technically, marriage has a legally enshrined status.

We had a very bad year last year financially.

The following is a list of adverbs that can refer to a particular aspect of something:

PRODUCTIVE FEATURE 69 'Speaking' is sometimes added to these adverbs. For example, 'technically speaking' can be used to mean 'from a technical point of view'.

He's not a doctor technically speaking.

He and Malcolm decided that, racially speaking, anyway, they were in complete agreement.

This is a productive feature of English. Productive features are explained in the Introduction.

generalization 70 You often want to avoid making a firm, forceful statement, because you are aware of facts that do not quite fit in with what you are saying.

One way of doing this is to use a sentence adjunct which indicates that you are making a general, basic, or approximate statement.

Basically, the more craters a surface has, the older it is.

By and large the broadcasters were free to treat this material very much as they wished.

I think on the whole we don't do too badly.

The following adjuncts are used like this:

Note that you can also use the expressions 'broadly speaking', 'generally speaking', and 'roughly speaking'.

We are all, broadly speaking, middle class.

Roughly speaking, the problem appears to be confined to the tropics.

71 You can also use prepositional phrases formed with classifying adjectives, such as 'in financial terms' or 'from a political point of view'. Similar prepositional phrases can be formed using the nouns related to these adjectives, for example using 'money' instead of 'financial': 'in money terms', 'in terms of money', 'with regard to money', or 'from the money point of view'.

Life is going to be a little easier in economic terms.

That is the beginning of a very big step forward in educational terms.

This state was a late developer in terms of commerce.

This is a productive feature of English. Productive features are explained in the Introduction.

72 Another way of saying something like 'with regard to money' is 'money-wise'. You add the suffix '-wise' to a noun referring to the aspect you mean. This is generally used to avoid the creation of long phrases.

Not to have visited the company's plant in Frankfurt or the American subsidiary with put you at a disadvantage status-wise.

We are mostly Socialists vote-wise.

This is a productive feature in American English, but is not so common in British English. Productive features are explained in the Introduction.

Showing connections: linking adjuncts

73 The following section explains the functions of different groups of linking adjuncts. Linking adjuncts are used to show what sort of connection there is between one sentence and another.

74 In the course of speaking or writing, you can introduce a related comment or an extra reinforcing piece of information using one of the following adjuncts:

Kuwait's oil will last for more than 200 years at current production levels. Moreover, new reserves continue to be discovered.

His first book was published in 1932, and it was followed by a series of novels. He also wrote a book on British pubs.

The demands of work can cause gaps in regular attendance. On top of that, many students are offered no extra lessons during the vacations.

Note that 'too' is not usually placed at the beginning of a sentence.

They had arrived in style, carnations in their buttonholes; they went out in style too.

indicating a parallel 75 You can emphasize that you are adding a fact that illustrates the same point as the one you have just made, or a suggestion that has the same basis, by using one of the following adjuncts:

Every baby's face is different from every other's. In the same way, every baby's pattern of development is different.

There seem to be fewer men around to whom I feel I ought to defer. By the same token, there are more and more men who come to me for advice.

Never feed your rabbit raw potatoes that haw gone greenthey contain a poison. Similarly, never feed it rhubarb leaves.

contrasts and alternatives 76 When you want to add a sentence that contrasts with the previous one or gives another point of view, you can use one of the following adjuncts:

He had forgotten that there was a rainy season in the winter months. It was, however, a fine, soft rain and the air was warm.

Her aim is to punish the criminal. Nevertheless, she is not convinced that imprisonment is always the answer.

The visitors got into their stride towards the end of the match. At no point, though, was in result seriously in doubt.

If you are mentioning an alternative, you can use 'instead', 'alternatively', or 'conversely'.

People who normally consulted her began to ask other people's advice instead.

The company is now considering an appeal. Alternatively, they may submit a new application.

causes 77 When you want to indicate that the fact you are mentioning exists because of the fact or facts previously given, you link your statements using one of the following adjuncts:

Oxford and Cambridge have a large income of their own. So they are not in quite the same position as other universities.

It isn't any detailed information. Therefore it isn't necessary.

We want a diverse press and we haven't got it. I think as a result a lot of options are denied us.

78 There are a number of adjuncts of time which are used to indicate that something takes place after or before an event that you have already mentioned or at the same time as that event:

Go and see Terry Brown about it. Come back to the afterwards.

Published in 1983, the book has since gone through six reprints.

One day they got married without telling anyone beforehand.

We look forward to the Commission studying this agreement. In the meantime we are pressing ahead with our plans.

79 In formal writing and speech, people often want to indicate what stage they have reached in writing or speaking. They do this using the following adjuncts:

What are the advantages of geo-thermal energy? Firstly, there's no fuel required, the energy already exists. Secondly, there's plenty of it. Finally, I want to say something about the heat pump.

80 When people are speaking or writing informally, they often add an extra piece of information using one of the conjunctions 'and', 'but', 'yet', 'or', and 'nor' to begin a new sentence.

We stayed fifteen miles from Bonar Bridge. And we went up the coast too.

I think it's motor cycling. But I'm not sure.

It's not improving their character. Nor their home life.

81 Linking adjuncts are often put after the conjunctions 'and' or 'but' at the beginning of a clause or sentence.

That will take a long time and besides you'd get it wrong.

They were familiar and therefore all right.

Her accent is not perfect. But still, it's a marvellous performance.

If you are linking two negative sentences or clauses, you can put 'either' at the end of the second one.

I can't use it, but I can't bear not to use it either.

Indicating a change in a conversation

82 Sometimes people want to avoid abruptness when changing the topic of conversation, or when starting to talk about a different aspect of it. They do this by using a particular group of sentence adjuncts. These adjuncts are mostly used when you are continuing a conversation, and rarely to begin one.

The following adjuncts are commonly used in this way:

They usually occur at the beginning of a clause. However, a few of them can be used in other places in the clause, when you want to pause or want to draw attention to the fact that you are introducing a new topic.

'Actually', 'anyhow', 'anyway', 'by the way', 'incidentally', and 'you know' can be used at the end of a clause. 'By the way', 'incidentally', and 'you know' can be used after the subject or after the first word in a verb group.

Here are some examples showing adjuncts used to change the topic of a conversation:

Actually, Dan, before I forget, she asked me to tell you about my new job.

Well now, we've got a very big task ahead of us.

Here are some examples showing adjuncts used to start talking about a different aspect of the same topic:

What do you sell there anyway?

This approach, incidentally, also has the advantage of being cheap.

Unlike the other adjuncts, 'then' by itself is not used at the beginning of a clause, only at the end.

That's all right then.

Are you fond of her, then?

83 Some adjuncts are used at the beginning of a clause to introduce a fact, often one that corrects the statement just made. They can also be used at the end of a clause, and elsewhere, to emphasize the fact.

Note that 'actually' is used here to add information on the same topic, whereas in the previous paragraph it indicated a change of topic.

Actually, I do know why he made the solicitors write the letter.

He rather envies you actually.

I'm sure you're right. In fact, I know you're right.

There's no reason to be disappointed. As matter of fact, this could be rather amusing.

They cannot hop or jump. Indeed, they can barely manage even to run.

'You see' is used to preface or point to an explanation.

'You don't want to come with me, then?''No. You see, it's not often that I get the chance to be absolutely free.'

Some ran away to Canada and were never heard of again. They couldn't write, you see.

'After all' is used to preface or point to a reason or justification of what you have just said.

She did not regret accepting his offer. He was, after all, about the right age.

84 Prepositional phrases can sometimes be used to introduce a new topic or a different aspect of the same topic. 'As to' or 'as for' can be used at the beginning of a sentence to introduce a slightly different topic.

As to what actually transpired at the headquarters, there are many differing accounts.

We will continue to expand our economy. As for the US, we will ask that they take steps to reduce their budget deficit.

'With' and 'in the case of' can be used to mention another thing that is involved in a type of situation that was previously mentioned.

With goats, for example, mother and infant form a close bond in the first five minutes of a kid's life.

The changes will be even more striking and effective in the case of teaching than in medicine.

Emphasizing

85 You may want to emphasize the truth of your statement or to stress the seriousness of the situation you are describing. You can do this using the following sentence adjuncts:

Sometimes we actually dared to penetrate their territory.

Above all, do not be too proud to ask for advice.

Eight years was indeed a sport span of time.

I really am sorry.

Believe me, if you get robbed, the best thing to do is forget about it.

Note that 'indeed' is often used after complements containing 'very'.

I think she is a very stupid person indeed.

'At all' is used for emphasis in negative clauses, usually at the end.

I didn't like it at all.

I would not be at all surprised if they turned out to be the same person.

'Surely' is used when you are appealing for agreement.

Surely it is better to know the truth than to be deluded.

Here, surely, is a case for treating people as individuals.

'Even' is placed in front of a word or group to draw attention to a surprising part of what you are saying.

Even at mid-day the air was sharp and chilly.

Some men were even singing.

There was no one in the cafe, not even a waiter.

'So' is used as an emphatic introduction when agreeing or commenting.

'Derek! It's raining!''So it is.'

'He's very grateful!''So he ought to be.'

'By all means' is used for emphasis when giving permission.

If your baby likes water, by all means give it to him

'For heaven's sake' is used when making a request or asking a question.

For heaven's sake, don't pull, Chris.

What are you staring at, for heaven's sake?

emphasizing exactness 86 You may want to emphasize that your statement is not only generally true, but that it is true in all its details. The adverbs 'exactly', 'just', and 'precisely' are used for this.

They'd always treated her exactly as if she were their own daughter.

Their decor was exactly right.

I know just how you feel.

The peasants are weak precisely because they are poor.

Indicating the most relevant thing: focusing adverbs

87 If you want to indicate the most relevant thing involved in what you are saying for example the main reason for something or the main quality of something, you can use a focusing adverb.

I'm particularly interested in classical music.

They have been used in certain countries, notably in South America.

We want especially to thank the numerous friends who encouraged us.

The following adverbs can be used like this:

restricting 88 Some focusing adverbs can be used to emphasize that only one particular thing is involved in what you are saying.

The existence of that balcony was a secret shared only by Kairi.

This is solely a matter of money.

It's a large canvas covered with just one colour.

The following adverbs can be used like this:

selecting 89 Focusing adverbs can be used to add a further piece of information with selects a particular group of people or things from a larger set. They can be used in this way with noun groups, prepositional phases, adjectives, and subordinate clauses.

I enjoy the company of young people, especially my grandchildren.

But many employers, notably in the engineering industry, are more than happy with the new system.

They were mostly professional people.

You'll enjoy it down in London, especially if you get a job.

position of focusing adverbs   90 In careful writing, focusing adverbs are usually put immediately in front of the word or clause element they apply to, in order to avoid ambiguity. In speech, it is usually clear from the intonation of the speaker what they apply to.

However, in many cases the focusing adverb does not necessarily focus on the word or element immediately after it. For example, in the sentence 'He mainly reads articles about mechanical things' the word 'mainly' almost certainly applies to 'about mechanical things', not to 'reads'.

Focusing adverbs are not normally used at the beginning of a sentence. However, you can use 'only' to begin a sentence when it focuses on the thing that follows it.

Only thirty-five per cent of four-year-olds get nursery education.

Only in science fiction is the topic touched on.

You can use 'just' and 'simply' at the beginning of sentences giving instructions.

Just add boiling water.

Simply remove one cube at a time.

'Alone' is always used after the element that it focuses on. 'Only' is sometimes used in this position.

It had always been felt that foster parents should make no profitthe job should be done for love alone.

They were identified by their first names only.

In informal speech and writing, other focusing adverbs are sometimes used after the element they focus on. For example, you can say 'We talked about me mostly' instead of 'We talked mostly about me'.

We have talked about France mainly.

Chocolate, particularly, is suspected of causing decay of the teeth.

In the early years, especially, a child may be afraid of many things.

This position can also be used when adding a piece of information.

He liked America, New York particularly.

She was busy writing, poetry mostly.

91 Some other adjuncts can be used to focus on additional information. The adverbs of degree 'largely', 'partly', and 'entirely', and adverbs of frequency such as 'usually' and 'often', can be used.

The situation had been created largely by lurid newspaper tales.

The house was cheap partly because it was falling down and partly because Seyer Street was a slum.

The females care for their young entirety by themselves.

They often fought each other, usually as a result of arguments over money.

Men from both divisions fought side by side, often for objectives they had never heard of.

The adjunct 'in particular', which has a similar meaning to 'particularly', can be used in the positions shown in the examples below.

Wednesday in particular is very busy.

Next week we shall be taking a look at education and in particular comprehensive schools.

He swore at life in general and Otto in particular.

In particular, I'm going to concentrated hydro-electricity.