Indicating how many participants are involved: transitivity

Indicating how many participants are involved: transitivity

2 In this grammar, transitivity is explained in relation to the clause as a whole. Many grammars deal with transitivity in terms of the way in which a verb selects objects. However, the verb, while usually central in clause structure, is not necessarily chosen first. This grammar explains subject, verb, and object relations by describing how statements are created.

intransitive verbs 3 If an action or event involved only one person or thing, you mention only the performer of the action (the subject) and the action (the verb).

The girl screamed.

I waited.

An awful thing has happened.

Clauses or this kind are called intransitive clauses. Verb which occur in intransitive clauses are called intransitive verbs.

However, you can then mention another person or thing which is involved using a prepositional phrase.

She walked across the street.

Intransitive verbs are explained in paragraphs 9 to 14.

4 If the action or event involves another person or thing which the action affects, relates to, or produces, you put a noun group referring to them after the verb group. This is called the object of the verb or clause. If it is necessary to distinguish it from other objects, it is called the direct object.

He closed the door.

I hate sport.

Some of the women noticed me.

Clauses which have a direct object are called transitive clauses, and verbs which occur in transitive clauses are called transitive verbs. Transitive verbs are explained in paragraphs 15 to 26.

Reflexive verbs and delexical verbs are special kinds of transitive verbs. They are explained in paragraphs 27 to 32 and 33 to 46.

5 The majority of verbs in English give you the option of presenting an event either as involving the subject only or as involving the subject and someone or something else as a direct object.

He paints every day.

Yarkov paints vivid portraits of friends and acquaintances.

Gus asked me whether I'd like to have dinner with him, I accepted.

I accepted the invitation.

This means that most verbs can be used in transitive clauses as well as intransitive clauses. Verbs which can be used in either type of clause are explained in paragraphs 47 to 55.

With some verbs, the thing affected by the action can be put as the object of the verb or as the object of a preposition after the verb. These verbs are explained in paragraphs 56 to 59.

Ergative verbs are a special kind of verb which can be used in intransitive or transitive clauses. They are explained in paragraphs 60 to 68.

6 There are two kinds of reciprocal verbs, which refer to actions which involve people doing the same thing to each other. One kind intransitive or transitive clauses; the other kind is used in intransitive clauses, with or without a prepositional phrase mentioning one of the participants.

We met at Hargreaves' place.

I had met him in Zermatt.

We argued over this question for a long time.

I argued with this man for half an hour.

Reciprocal verbs are explained in paragraphs 69 to 7

7 A small number of transitive verbs also allow you to mention a person who benefits from an action or receives something as a result. The clause then has both a direct object and a indirect object.

Piggy handed Ralph his glasses.

His uncle had given him books on India.

She sends you her love.

She passed him his cup.

Verbs which can take an indirect object as well as a direct object are called ditransitive verbs. They are explained in paragraphs 74 to 8

phrasal verbs, compound verbs 8 Some verbs have two or three parts. These are phrasal verbs and compound verbs. Phrasal verbs are explained in paragraphs 84 to 117, and compound verbs are explained in paragraphs 118 to 126.

Talking about events which involve only the subject: intransitive verbs

9 When you are talking about an action or event which does not involve anyone or anything other than the subject, you use an intransitive verb.

Her whole body ached.

Such people still exist.

My condition deteriorated.

Many intransitive verbs describe physical behaviour or the making of sounds.

Bob coughed.

Vicki wept bitterly.

The gate squeaked.

10 Here is a list of verbs which are normally used in intransitive clauses and which usually or often have no adjunct after them:

A few of these verbs are used transitively in idioms or with very specific objects, but they are intransitive in all their common meanings.

intransitive verbs followed by prepositional phrases 11 Many intransitive verbs always or typically have an adjunct after them. With some, the adjunct must be a prepositional phrase beginning with a particular preposition. This use of a preposition allows something affected by the action to be mentioned, as the object of the preposition.

Everything you see here belongs to me.

Landlords often resorted to violence.

I sympathized with them.

I'm relying on Bill.

He yearned for academic recognition.

12 Here is a list of verbs which always or typically have a particular preposition after them when they are used with a particular meaning:

Here is a list of verbs which can have either of two prepositions after them:

Note that some intransitive verbs can be used in the passive when they followed by a preposition. See paragraph 10.2

13 With other verbs, the adjunct after them can be a variety of prepositional phrases, or an adverb. The adjunct is often an adjunct of place. See Chapter 6 for information on these adjuncts.

Verbs of movement are usually or often followed by adjuncts of direction.

He went back to his own room.

I travelled south.

Here is a list of verbs of movement:

'Look', 'gaze', and 'stare' are also followed by adjuncts of direction.

Verbs of position are usually followed by adjuncts of portion.

Donald was lying on the bed.

She lives in Lausanne.

I used to live here.

Here is a list of verbs of position:

Verbs such as 'extend' or 'stretch' are followed by adjuncts indicating extent.

The storm we're in now extends all the way from here to Newfoundland.

There are a few verbs which are always followed by adjuncts of other sorts.

It behaves rather like a squirrel.

The Child-minders' Action Movement has successfully campaigned for many improvements.

I hoped that the absorption of poison hadn't progressed too far.

Here is a list of verbs which are always followed by adjuncts of other sorts:

verbs which are occasionally transitive 14 There are a small number of verbs which are usually intransitive but which can be transitive when used with one particular object. The object is usually directly related to the verb. For example, 'smile' is usually used intransitively with the noun 'smile'. For example, 'He smiled a patient smile' is a literary alternative to saying 'He smiled patiently'. The focus is on the type of smile rather than on the act of smiling.

Steve smiled his thin, cruel smile.

He appears to have lived the life of any other rich gentleman.

Alice laughed a scornful laugh.

I once dreamed a very nice dream about you.

Here is a list of verb, which can only be used transitively when the object is directly related to the verb:

A more common way of focusing on the noun group is to use a delexical verb such as 'give', 'take', or 'have', as in 'Mary gave him a really lovely smile'. See paragraphs 33 to 46 for more information about the use of delexical verbs.

Involving someone or something other than the subject: transitive verbs

15 Many verbs describe events that must, in addition to the subject, involve someone or something else. Some of these verbs can only be used in transitive clauses.

The extra profit justifies the investment.

He had committed a disgraceful action.

They wanted an assistant in the box office.

This means that they are followed by a direct object.

She had friends.

Children seek independence.

The trial raised a number of questions.

16 Many verbs which are only used in transitive clauses can take a large range of objects. For example, there are many things you can 'want': money, a rest, success, and so on.

She wanted some help.

I put my hand on the door.

She described her background.

l still support the government.

He had always liked Mr Phillips.

Japan has a population of about a hundred million.

Some transitive verbs have a restricted range of objects, because of their meaning. For example, the object of the verb 'kill' must be something that is alive. The object of the verb 'waste' must be something you can use, such as time, money, or food.

They killed huge elephants with tiny poisoned darts.

Why waste money on them?

17 Here is a list of verbs which are transitive:

Note that 'do' and 'have' are also very often used as auxiliaries. See the Reference Section for this use.

'Have got' and 'has got' are often used instead of the present tense of 'have' when talking about possession. The forms of 'have' behave like auxiliaries when used like this before 'got'. 'Had got' is sometimes used when referring to the past, but 'had' is often used instead.

I've got an umbrella.

She's got a degree.

He'd got over fifty horses.

'Measure' and 'weigh' are sometimes considered to be transitive verbs when used to state measurements and weights. This use is explained in paragraph 269. 'Cost' is used to state the cost of something, as in 'An adult ticket costs 90p'.

human objects 18 When you are talking about something that affects a person rather than a thing, it is normal in English to say who that person is. Therefore, verbs such as 'anger', 'thank', and 'warn', which involve affecting people, usually occur in transitive clauses.

My questions angered the crowd.

Her sudden death had surprised everybody.

Blue suits you.

Money did not interest him very much.

Lebel briefed Caron on the events of the afternoon.

19 Here is a list of verbs which usually have a human object:

transitive verbs which need an adjunct 20 With some transitive verbs, you have to give additional information about what is going on by using an adjunct after the object of the verb.

Some verbs typically have a prepositional phrase beginning with a particular preposition after their object.

The judge based his decision on constitutional rights.

He had subjected me to the pressure of financial ruin.

Mr. Claude Cheysoon regards the third world as his top priority.

Here is a list of verbs which always or usually have a particular preposition after their object:

With the following verbs, there is a choice of preposition:

21 Other verbs are typically followed by an adjunct, but not one containing a particular preposition. The adjunct is often an adjunct of place.

He placed the baby on the woman's lap.

I positioned my chair outside the room.

He never puts anything away.

He treated his labourers with kindness.

Here is a list of verbs which usually have an adjunct of some kind after their object:

Adjuncts are explained in Chapter 6.

22 Note that some verbs of movement and position are transitive, not intransitive; they are followed by noun groups referring to places rather than by adverbs or prepositional phrases. This is because the verbs themselves indicate that you are talking about movement or position of a particular kind. For example, 'enter' implies movement 'into' a place and 'occupy implies position 'in' a place.

As they neared the outskirts of the city the traffic thickened.

It was dark by the time they reached their house.

A small ornamental pool occupied the centre of the room.

Roaring aircraft filled the sky.

Here is a list of transitive verbs of movement:

Here is a list of transitive verbs of position:

Some verbs of movement can be followed either by a noun group or by a prepositional phrase. See paragraph 59.

23 Note that even verbs which are almost always followed by a direct object can occasionally be used intransitively. This is possible in very restricted contexts. For example, if you are contrasting two actions, not necessary to say what else is involved.

Money markets are the places where people with money buy and sell.

Some people build while others destroy.

We gave, they took.

If you use a list of different verbs for emphasis, you do not need to name the object.

They set out to be rude: to defy, threaten, or tease.

If you repeat a verb in order to contrast it with a similar action, or to emphasize it, the object can be omitted.

She had ceased to love as she had once loved.

24 Verbs which describe feelings and attitudes can sometimes be used without an object, particularly in the 'to'-infinitive form. This is because the object is assumed to be people in general. For example, 'please' usually requires an object, but you can say 'He likes to please', meaning he likes to please people.

He likes to shock.

She was anxious to please.

He must be convinced if he is to convince.

I have a tendency to tease.

reporting verbs 25 There is a large group of verbs, such as 'say', 'suggest' and 'think', which are used to report what people say or think. They are called reporting verbs. They are followed by a 'that'-clause which is called the reported clause.

She said that she would come.

The reported clause is often thought of as being an object, and so these verbs are usually said to be transitive verbs. In this grammar, reporting verbs are explained in Chapter 7.

Reporting verbs such as 'advise' and 'persuade', which have an object which refers to the person being addressed, are explained in paragraphs 7.71 and 7.7

Some reporting verbs can take as their object a noun such as 'question' or 'story' which refers to something that is said or written. These verbs are listed in paragraph 7.78. Some take an object which refers to an event or fact, and is therefore closely related to a 'that'-clause. These are listed in paragraph 7.79.

Verbs such as 'believe' and 'know' which can be used as report verbs but which are ordinary transitive verbs when used with another common meaning are included in the lists of transitive verbs given above.

26 Most transitive verbs can be used in the passive. See paragraphs 10.8 to 10.21.

Verbs where the object refers back to the subject: reflexive verbs

PRODUCTIVE FEATURE 27 If an action usually involves two different people but you want to talk about a case where the same person is involved twice, you can use a reflexive pronoun as the object of a clause. For example, it is usual to blame someone else if something goes wrong, but you can say 'I blame myself for what happened' if you are the only person involved in the blaming.

Although a few verbs are typically used with reflexive pronouns, you can actually use a reflexive pronoun as the object of any transitive verb, when the meaning allows you to do so.

I blame myself for not paying attention.

She freed herself from my embrace.

After the meeting, he introduced himself to me.

I had decided to kill myself.

Don't deceive yourself

We Americans must ask ourselves several questions.

The insect, in effect, is eating itself.

This is a productive feature of English. Productive features are explained in the Introduction.

Reflexive pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.115 to 1.12

23 Note that the verbs 'busy', 'content', and 'pride' are true reflexive verbs they must be used with a reflexive pronoun.

He had busied himself in the laboratory.

Conrad and I contented ourselves with expressing our relief.

He prides himself on his tidiness.

29 Another small group of verbs can only take an object which refers to a person when the object is a reflexive pronoun. For example, you can 'express an opinion' and you can 'express yourself', meaning that you can put ideas into words, but you cannot 'express a person'.

Professor Baxendale expressed himself very forcibly.

She enjoyed herself enormously.

He applied himself to learning how Parliament worked.

Here is a list of verbs which take a reflexive pronoun as their object when you refer to a person:

30 Some verbs which normally do not have objects, because they involve only the performer of the action, can have a reflexive pronoun as their object if you want to emphasize that the subject is doing something that affects himself or herself. You can therefore say 'Bill washed himself' rather than 'Bill washed'.

I always wash five times a day.

Children were encouraged to wash themselves.

I stood in the kitchen while he shaved.

He prefers to shave himself before breakfast.

Ashton had behaved abominably.

He is old enough to behave himself like a gentleman.

The Eskimoes are adapting to change.

You've got to be willing to adapt yourself.

Here is a list of verbs which have senses in which you can use a reflexive pronoun for emphasis:

31 Note that reflexive pronouns are not used as much in English as in some other languages when talking about actions that you do to yourself.

As mentioned above, you would usually say 'I washed' rather than 'I washed myself' in English. Sometimes a noun group with a possessive is used instead. For example, you would say 'I combed my hair' rather than 'I combed myself'.

32 Note that refine verbs are not used in the passive.

Verbs with little meaning: delexical verbs

33 There are a number of very common verbs which are used with nouns as their object to indicate simply that someone performs an action, not that someone affects or creates something. These verbs have very little meaning when they are used in this way.

For example, 'had' in 'She had a shower' has very little meaning in itself. Most of the meaning of the sentence is carried by the noun 'shower'.

We were having a joke.

Roger gave a grin of sheer delight.

He took a step towards Jack.

verbs which are often delexical 34 In this section we focus on the very common verbs which are used in this transitive structure. They are called delexical verbs, and the structure which consists of a delexical verb followed by a noun group is called a delexical structure.

Here is a list of verbs which are used as delexical verbs. The first four are very commonly used in this way.

Note that 'have got' is not used instead of 'have' in delexical structures.

Delexical structures are very common in current English. Although the total number of delexical verbs is small, they include some of the very commonest words in the language. Delexical structures contribute to the impression of fluency in English given by a foreign user.

35 In many cases, there is a verb which has a similar meaning to the meaning of the delexical structure. For example, the verb 'look' means almost the same as 'have a look'. When the word is a verb, as in 'I looked round the room', you are focusing on the action of locking. When you use the word as a noun in a delexical structure, you are naming an event, something which is complete. This structure often seems to be preferred to a structure in which the verb has greater prominent which corresponds to the delexical structure is often intransitive.

She made a signal.

She signalled for a taxi.

A couple were having a drink at a table by the window.

A few students were drinking at the bar.

She gave an amused laugh.

They both laughed.

He gave a vague reply.

They replied to his letter.

There are also some verbs which are transitive.

I had a glimpse of the speedometer.

I glimpsed a bright flash of gold on the left.

He gave a little sniff.

I sniffed the room.

Comis took a photograph of her.

They photographed the pigeons in Trafalgar Square.

36 The noun which is the object of the delexical verb is often in the singular and is usually preceded by the indefinite article.

She made a remark about the weather.

She gave a cry when I came in.

I might take a stroll.

There are some count nouns which are almost always used in the singular after a delexical verb. Here is a list of these nouns:

Note that these words are more commonly used as verbs in the language as a whole.

37 You can also use a delexical verb followed by a plural noun.

She took little ladylike sips of the cold drink.

He took photographs of Vita in her summer house.

The newspaper had made disparaging remarks about his wife.

38 It is also occasionally possible to follow a delexical verb with an uncount noun.

We have made progress in both science and art.

Cal took charge of this side of their education.

39 One difference in meaning between using a delexical structure and a verb with a similar meaning is that the delexical structure can give the impression that the event you are describing is brief. For example, 'She gave a scream' suggests that there was only one quick scream, whereas 'She screamed' does not suggest that the event was brief.

Mr. Sutton gave a shout of triumph.

Zoe gave a sigh of relief.

He gave a laugh.

40 Another reason for choosing a delexical structure is that you can add farther details about the event by using adjectives in front of the noun, rather than by using adverbs. It is more common, for example, to say 'He gave a quick furtive glance round the room' than to say 'He glanced quickly and furtively round the room', which is felt to be rather clumsy and unnatural.

He gave a long lecture about Roosevelt.

She had a good cry.

Benn made a sincere personal appeal to the Committee.

These legends hold a romantic fascination for many Japanese.

41 There are some nouns used in delexical structures which do not correspond in form to a verb which has a similar meaning to the delexical structure. Sometimes there is such a verb, but the form is slightly different.

Work experience allows students to make more effective career decisions.

The Prime Minister decided she had heard enough.

He made the shortest speech I've ever heard.

Iain spoke candidly about the crash.

In other cases, there is no corresponding verb with a similar meaning at all and so there is no other structure that can be used.

He had been out all day taking pictures of the fighting.

That is a very foolish attitude to take.

She made a number of relevant points.

Try not to make so much noise.

nouns used with 'have' 42 In most cases, only one delexical verb is used with any particular noun.

The following examples show nouns which are used after 'have'.

They have a desperate need to communicate.

The Americans had a nonchalant belief in their technological superiority.

She had had a good cry.

Let's not have a quarrel.

We could have a talk.

Here is a list of nouns which are used after 'have':

nouns used with 'take' 43 The following examples show nouns which are used after 'take'.

His work was to take photographs while flying over Germany.

kids taking turns to use a playground slide.

He was taking no chances.

She was prepared to take great risks.

Mr Korwin takes a protectionist attitude towards women who, he claims, look for someone to take care of them.

Davis took the lead in blaming the pilots.

The Government fought against suggestions that it should take full blame for the affair.

Here is a list or nouns which are used after 'take'. The first set of nouns are count nouns; the second set of nouns are uncount nouns or always either singular or plural:

nouns used with 'give' 44 Many nouns can be used after 'give'.

Some of these nouns refer to verbal or facial actions. Using 'give' with one of these nouns often suggests that the action is involuntary or that it is not necessarily directed at other people. For example, 'She gave a scream' suggests that she could not help screaming.

The young cashier gave a patient sigh.

Roger gave a grin of sheer delight.

He gave a shrill gasp of shock.

Both of them gave an involuntary little giggle.

He gave a rare chuckle.

Here is a list of nouns which refer to verbal or facial actions:

Another group of nouns are often preceded by an indirect object because they describe activities which involve someone else, apart from the subject.

They gave us a wonderfully warn welcome.

Elaine gave him a hug.

He gave her hand a squeeze.

He gave him a good kick.

She gave him a long kiss.

Here is a list of nouns which can be preceded by an indirect object:

A third group of nouns refer to speech actions.

The Oxford poetry professor is required to give a lecture every term.

Lord Young will be giving a first-hand account of the economic difficulties the Russians are struggling to overcome.

Sir Stephen Brown has given warning that conflict over the plans could lead to a constitutional crisis.

Here is a list of nouns which refer to speech actions:

45 Many nouns can be used after 'make'.

The delexical structures using a lot of these nouns are closely related to reporting structures, which are explained in Chapter 7. There is usually a related verb which can be used followed by a reported clause.

She made a remark about the weather.

Allen remarked that at times he thought he was back in America.

Now and then she makes a comment on something.

Henry Cecil commented that the ground was too firm.

I haven't made a full confession, sir.

Fox confessed that he had stolen the money.

The cricketers made a public protest against apartheid.

She was greeted by supporters protesting that Reagan had betrayed his allies.

I made a secret signal to him.

The Bank of England signalled that there would be no change in interest rates.

You made the right decision.

One candidate resigned, deciding that banking was not for her.

Here is a list of nouns which are used after 'make' and have a related reporting verb:

Other nouns used with 'make' express speech actions other than reports, or describe change, results, effort, and so on.

I'll make some enquiries for you.

They agreed to make a few minor changes.

McEnroe was desperate to make one last big effort to win Wimbledon again.

He made an attempt to calm down.

It was put to him that he was making a serious charge against Mrs Thatcher.

Here is a list of other nouns which are used after 'make':

Note that, unlike the other nouns in this list, 'progress' is uncountable.

nouns used with 'have' and 'take' 46 There are a number of nouns which can be used after either 'have' or 'take'. 'Have' is more common with these nouns in British English, whereas 'take' is more common in American English.

One group of these nouns refer to physical activities.

I'd rather have a swim.

Have a drink.

She decided to take a stroll along the beach.

I look a bath, my second that day.

Here is a list of nouns which refer to physical activities:

Another group refer to actions which involve using our senses.

She should let a doctor have a look at you.

Even Lally had a little sip of wine.

A Harvard scientist was once allowed in to have a peep.

Meadows look a bite of meat.

Here is a list of nouns which refer to such actions:

Verbs which can be used in both intransitive and transitive clauses

47 There are several reasons why you can use verbs in intransitive as well as transitive clauses.

48 One important reason for using verbs in intransitive as well as transitive clauses is that many verbs have more than one common meaning. For example, the verb 'run' is intransitive when it is used in the sense 'to move quickly'. But 'run' is transitive when it is used in the sense 'to manage or operate'.

The hare runs at enormous speed.

She runs a hotel.

She reflected for a moment and then decided to back out.

His ideas reflected the influence of progressive thinkers.

I can manage perfectly well on my own.

I can no longer manage my life.

She moved rather gracefully.

The whole incident had moved her profoundly.

49 here is a list of verbs which can be used in intransitive as well as transitive clauses, depending on which meaning you are using:

50 Many verbs in English can be used with or without an object, with the same basic meaning. The object is not needed when it is obvious what type of thing you are talking about.

For example, you could say either 'She eats food slowly' or 'She eats slowly'. It is obvious in this context that what she eats is food, and so you only mention food if you want to emphasize the fact (which is unlikely), or if you want to say what hind of food she eats.

With verbs like these, you normally use an object only when you want to be specific or when you want to contrast what happened on one specific occasion with what happens normally. For example, you would say 'I've been studying history', as opposed to 'I've been studying', only if you want or need to mention the subject specifically, or if you normally study something else.

a healthy person who eats sensibly.

Twice a week he eats an apple for lunch.

Father never smoked or drank.

He drank a good deal of coffee.

He had wonand she had helped.

She could help him to escape.

I cooked for about eight directors.

She had never cooked dinner for anyone.

I washed and ironed for them.

She ironed my shift.

Rudolph waved and went into the house.

She smiled and waved her hand.

She sat and typed.

She typed a letter to the paper in question.

You need to give the object when it is different from the one that people would normally associate with the verb. For example, 'to wave' is usually interpreted as meaning 'to wave your hand', so if something else is being waved, you have to mention it.

He waved a piece of paper in his left hand.

Charlie washed Susan's feet.

Many growers save their own seeds.

You also mention the object when you warn to say something specific about it.

He washed his summer clothes and put them away.

Bond waved a cheerful hand.

I could save quite a lot of money.

51 Here is a list of verbs which can be used without an object when it is obvious what sort of thing is involved:

object already mentioned 52 There is another group of verbs which are usually transitive but which can be used intransitively with the same meaning. These are verbs where the object is obvious because it has already been mentioned. For example, if you have already mentioned the place where something happened, you can say 'I left', without naming the place again.

At last she thanked them and left.

He turned away and walked quickly up the passage. I locked the door and followed.

I was in the middle of a quiet meal when the tanks attacked.

She did not look round when the he entered.

The sentry fired at the doctor and fortunately missed.

Only two or three hundred men belonged to the Union before the war, now thousands joined.

53 Here is a list of verbs which can be used without an object when the object has already been mentioned:

54 If you think that the object may not be obvious from what has been said or if you particularly want to draw attention to it, you mention it.

All I know is that Michael and I never left the house.

Miss Lindley followed Rose into the shop.

He attacked the enemy by night.

I entered the Duke's cabin without knocking.

She threw the first dart and missed the board altogether.

I had joined an athletic club in Chicago.

55 There are not many verbs which are always transitive or always intransitive. The decision about whether or not to mention an object is left to the users. If they think that the people reading or listening to them will have no difficulty in working out what person or thing is affected by the action, then they can leave out the object. If they think that this will not be clear, they will use an object in order to prevent misunderstanding. The main reasons for omitting the object are that it is obvious from the meaning of the verb itself, or that it is obvious from what has already been said.

Verbs which can take an object or a prepositional phrase

56 There is a small group of verbs which can be followed by either an object or a prepositional phrase. The verb 'fight' is one of these verbs, so that, for example, you can say 'He fought the enemy' or 'He fought against the enemy'.

The Polish Army fought the Germans for nearly five weeks.

He was fighting against history.

The New Zealand rugby team played South Africa's Springboks.

In his youth, Thomas had played against Glamorgan.

57 There is usually little difference in meaning between using the verb on its own and following it with a preposition. For example, there is very little difference in meaning between 'brush' and 'brush against', 'gnaw' and 'gnaw at', and 'hiss' and 'hiss at' in the following examples.

Her arm brushed my cheek.

Something brushed against the back of the shelter.

Rabbits often gnaw the woodwork of they cages.

Insects had been gnawing at the wood.

They hissed the Mayor at the ceremony.

Frederica hissed at him.

58 Here is a list of verbs which can be used with a direct object or a prepositional phrase, with little difference in meaning:

verbs of movement 59 Many of the verbs which can take an object or a prepositional phrase are verbs such as 'wander' and 'cross' which describe physical movement. The preposition is one which indicates place, and so allows you to emphasize the physical position of the subject in relation to the object.

He wandered the hills in his spare time.

He wandered through the streets of New York.

I crossed the Mississippi.

The car had crossed over the river to Long Island.

We climbed the mountain.

I climbed up the tree.

Here is a list of verbs which describe movement, and the prepositions that can follow them:

Changing your focus by changing the subject: ergative verbs

60 Some verbs allow you to describe an action from the point of view of the performer of the action or from the point of view of something which is affected by the action. This means that the same verb can be used transitively, followed by the object, or intransitively, without the original performer being mentioned.

In the first example below, 'the door' is the object of the verb 'opened', but in the second example 'the door' is the subject of 'opened' and there is no mention of who opened the door.

When I opened the door, there was Laverne.

Suddenly the door opened.

An explosion shook the rooms.

The whole room shook.

Note that the object of the transitive verb, which is the subject of the intransitive verb, usually refers to a thing, not a person.

Verbs which can have the same thing as their object, when transitive, or their subject, when intransitive, are called ergative verbs. For many students of English, the ergative verb is a new idea, and may take a little time to learn. However, it is an important type of verb, as the common examples below make clear. There are several hundred ergative verbs in regular use in current English.

61 Many ergative verbs describe events which involve a change from one state to another.

He was slowing his pace.

She was aware that the aircraft's taxiing pace had slowed.

I shattered the glass.

Wine bottles had shattered all over the pavement.

He should have closed the beaches.

The street markets have closed.

The Director of the Budget has changed his title but not his authority.

Over the next few months their work pattern changed.

The driver stopped the car.

A big car stopped.

62 Here is a list of ergative verbs which describe events which involve a change of some kind:

63 There are many other ergative verbs which relate specifically to certain areas of meaning. For example, there are a number which relate to food and cooking, others which describe physical movement, and others which involve a vehicle as the object of the transitive verb or the subject the intransitive verb.

I've boiled an egg.

The porridge is boiling.

I'm cooking spaghetti.

The rice is cooking.

The birds turned their heads sharply at the sound.

Vorster's head turned.

She rested her head on his shoulder.

Her head rested on the edge of the table.

She had crashed the car twice.

Pollock's car crashed into a clump of trees.

64 Here is a list of verbs relating to food, physical movement, and vehicles:

restrictions on ergative subjects 65 Note that some verbs are used ergatively with one or two nouns only. For example, you can say 'He fired a gun' or 'The gun fired'. You can also say 'He fired a bullet', but you would not normally say 'The bullet fired'.

I rang the bell.

The bell rang.

A car was sounding its horn.

A horn sounded in the night.

He had caught his sleeve on a splinter of wood.

The hat caught on a bolt and tore.

66 Here is a list of verbs which can be used ergatively with the noun, or kind of noun, that is given:

ergative verbs which need adjuncts 67 There are a small number of ergative verbs which usually have an adverb of other adjunct when they are used intransitively. This is because you choose this structure when you want to emphasize how something behaves when affected in some way, and so the person who does the action is not important.

I like the new Range Rover. It handles beautifully.

Wool washes well if you treat it carefully.

Here is a list of ergative verbs which usually have an adjunct when they are used intransitively:

comparison of passive voice and ergative use 68 Note that ergative verbs perform a similar function to the passive because they allow you to avoid mentioning who or what does the action. For example, you could say 'Jane froze a lot of peas from the garden'. If you were not interested in who froze them but in what she froze, you could say 'A lot of peas were frozen', using the passive voice. If you were interested in how they froze, you could say 'The peas from garden froze really well', making use of the fact that the verb is ergative.

For information about the passive, see 10.8 to 10.24.

Verbs which involve people doing the same thing to each other: reciprocal verbs

69 Some verbs can describe processes which involve two people or two groups of people doing the same thing to each other. For example, 'John and Mary argued' means that John argued with Mary and Mary argued with John.

The pair of you have argued about that for years.

He came out and we hugged.

They competed furiously.

These verbs are called reciprocal verbs.

70 One of the structures in which you use reciprocal verbs is where the two groups are put together in a plural subject and the verb is then used intransitively.

Their faces touched.

Their children are always fighting.

They kissed.

71 When you want to emphasize that both participants are equally involved in the action, you put 'each other' or 'one another' after the verb group.

We embraced each other.

They kissed each other in greeting.

They fought each other desperately for it.

It was the first time they had touched one another.

Here is a list of reciprocal verbs which are used transitively with the pronouns 'each other' and 'one another':

With some verbs you need to use a preposition, usually 'with', in from of 'each other' or 'one another'.

You've got to be able to communicate with each other.

Third World countries are competing with each other for a restricted market.

His visitors agreed with one another to proceed to the coffee-house.

Here is a list of reciprocal verbs which must be followed by 'with' before the pronouns 'each other' and 'one another':

Here is a list of verbs which are used with a preposition other than 'with':

Note that 'consult, 'engage', and 'fight' can be used either transitively or with a preposition.

72 In the examples given above, the user of the language obviously believes that both people or groups are equally involved in the event, because both are the subject. However, the user may want to suggest that one person is responsible for the action or has started it. In this case, a noun group which refers to that person is put in subject position.

If the verb can be used transitively, a noun group referring to the other participant is used as the object of the verb.

He embraced her.

She married a young engineer.

You could meet me at a restaurant.

The Algerians were fighting the French army in their mountains.

If the verb needs a preposition after it, the other noun group is used as the object of the preposition.

Our return coincided with the arrival of bad weather.

Youths clashed with police in Belfast.

The distribution of aid corresponds to need.

73 People sometimes make one person or group the subject when the event is a violent or unpleasant one, in order to make them appear aggressive or responsible for the violence. For example, the headline 'Police clash with youths' might suggest that the police were response for the clash, even though the youths also clashed with the police.

Paul collided with a large man in a sweat-stained shirt.

The role of worker conflicts with the role of mother.

She liked him even when she was quarrelling with him.

Verbs which can have two objects: ditransitive verbs

74 Sometimes you may want to talk about an event which involves someone in addition to the people or things that are the subject and object of the clause. This third participant is someone who benefits from the action or receives something as a result. They become the indirect object of the clause. The direct object, as usual, is the poison or thing that something is done to. For example, in 'I gave John a book', 'John' is the indirect object and 'the book' is the direct object.

Verbs which can take both a direct object and an indirect object are called ditransitive verbs.

The indirect object is put immediately after the verb group, in front of the direct object.

Dad gave me a car.

Dr Robey handed David a price of string.

She brought me a boiled egg and toast.

He had lent Tim the money.

A man promised him a job.

indirect objects in prepositional phrases 75 Instead of putting the indirect object in front of the direct object, it is possible to put it in a prepositional phrase that comes after the direct object.

He handed his room key to the receptionist.

Ralph passed a message to Jack.

He gave it to me.

This structure is used particularly in cases where you want to focus on the indirect object. You can use it, for example, when the indirect object is significantly longer than the direct object.

He had taught English to all the youth of Ceylon and India.

The Express offered $100 to any reader who could relate what Bal had said.

76 It is normal to use this prepositional structure when the direct object is a pronoun such as 'it' or 'them'.

I took the bottle and offered it to Oakley.

Woodward finished the second page and passed it to the editor.

It was the only pound he had and he gave it to the little boy.

God has sent you to me.

This is because pronouns usually refer to things that have already been mentioned, that is, to information that is known to your hearer or reader. In English, new information usually comes at the end of the clause. So, when the indirect object is new information and the direct object is not, the indirect object is put at the end of the clause.

Note that in informal spoken English, some people put the indirect object in front of the direct object when both objects are pronouns. For example, some people say 'He gave me it' rather than 'He gave it to me'. Both pronouns are unstressed and both refer to information that is already known, and so it does not matter what order they come in.

77 If you want to put the indirect object in a prepositional phrase, you use the preposition 'to' with some verbs, especially ones where the direct object is something which is transferred from one person to another.

Mr Schell wrote a letter the other day to the New York Times.

I had lent my apartment to a friend for the weekend.

I took out the black box and handed it to her.

Here is a list of verbs which can have an indirect object introduced by 'to':

78 If the action you are describing involves one person doing something which will benefit another person, you can use the preposition 'for' to introduce the indirect object.

He left a note for her on the table.

He poured more champagne for the three of them.

He had saved an apple for the beggar.

Here is a list of verbs which can have an indirect object introduced by 'for':

USAGE NOTE 79 Note that the verbs 'bring', 'leave', 'play', 'sing', 'take', and 'write' are in both of the lists (77 and 78). That is because there are a few verbs which can take either 'to' or 'for' in front of the indirect object, depending on the meaning you want to express. For example, 'Karen wrote a letter to her boyfriend' means that the letter was addressed to her boyfriend and was for him to read, 'Karen wrote a letter for her boyfriend' means that her boyfriend wanted to send someone else a letter and Karen was the person who actually wrote it.

USAGE NOTE 80 There are some ditransitive verbs where the indirect object almost always comes in front of the direct object rather than being introduced by 'to' or 'for'. For example, you say 'He begrudged his daughter the bread she ate' and 'She allowed her son only two pounds a week'. It would be very unusual indeed to say 'She allowed two pounds a week to her son'.

Here is a list of verbs which do not usually have their indirect object introduced by 'to' or 'for':

Note that 'wish' can be used as this sort of ditransitive verb when its direct object is a word or phrase like 'luck', 'good luck', or 'happy birthday'.

81 When you use a passive form of a ditransitive verb, either the direct object or the indirect object can become the subject. See 10.20 for full information.

USAGE NOTE 82 When the subject and the indirect object refer to the same person, you can use a reflexive pronoun as the indirect object.

Rose bought herself a piece of cheese for lunch.

He had got himself a car.

He cooked himself an omelette.

Reflexive pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.115 to 1.12

transitive uses 83 Most of the verbs listed above as ditransitive verbs can be used with the same meaning with just a direct object.

He left a note.

She fetched a jug from the kitchen.

However, the following verbs always or usually have both a direct object and an indirect object:

A few verbs can be used with the person who benefits from the action, or receives something, as the direct object.

I fed the baby when she woke.

I forgive you.

Here is a list of these verbs:

Extending or changing the meaning of a verb: phrasal verbs

84 There is a special group of verbs which consist of two or three words. These are called phrasal verbs. They consist of

a verb followed by an adverb:

He sat down.

Ralph stood on his head and fell over.

The cold weather set in.

a verb followed by a preposition:

She looked after her invalid mother.

She sailed through her exams.

The other day I came across a letter from Brunel written in the fast year of his life.

or a verb followed by an adverb and a preposition.

You may come up against unexpected difficulties.

I look forward to reading it.

Fame has crept up on her almost by accident.

By combining a verb and an adverb or preposition in this way, we can extend the usual meaning of the verb or create a new meaning, different from any that the verb has on its own. You cannot, therefore, always guess the meaning of a phrasal verb from the usual meanings of the verb and the adverb or preposition.

In the case of a few phrasal verbs, the first part is not found independently as a verb. For example, there are phrasal verbs 'sum up', 'tamper with', 'zero in on', but no verbs 'sum', 'tamper', or 'zero'.

Note that phrasal verbs are never written as a single word or with a hyphen.

85 Most phrasal verbs consist of two words. These are explained below in paragraphs 86 to 111. Three-word phrasal verbs are explained in paragraphs 112 to 114.

86 Some phrasal verbs are used in intransitive clauses. Many of these are verb plus adverb combinations.

Rosamund went away for a few days.

The boys were fooling around.

She must have dozed off.

87 Here is a list of phrasal verbs which consist of an intransitive verb and an adverb:

intransitive phrasal verbs with prepositions 88 Other phrasal verbs used in intransitive clauses are verb plus preposition combinations.

Ski trips now account for nearly half of all school visits.

I'm just asking for information.

the arguments that stem from gossip.

Note that the noun groups at the end of the above examples ('nearly half of all school visits', 'information', and 'gossip') are objects of the prepositions and not directly objects of the verbs.

89 Here is a list of phrasal verbs which consist of an intransitive verb and a preposition:

90 In the case of some intransitive phrasal verbs, the second word can be a preposition if the second thing involved needs to be mentioned, or can be an adverb if the second thing involved is clear from the context.

I could hang around your office.

We'll have to hang around for a while.

a dog who had lagged behind the others.

After a white, I see he is deliberately lagging behind.

91 Here is a list of intransitive phrasal verbs whose second word can be a preposition or an adverb:

transitive phrasal verbs 92 Another group of phrasal verbs are nearly always used in transitive clauses, because the verb takes a direct object.

I left my pack behind and took only a wafer bottle.

Morris tracked Hilary down in the bathroom.

She read the poem out quietly.

93 Here is a list of phrasal verbs which consist of a transitive verb and an adverb:

Phrasal verbs which consist of a transitive verb and a preposition are explained in paragraphs 108 to 111.

94 A large group of phrasal verbs can be used in intransitive as well as transitive structures.

Often this is because a phrasal verb has more than one meaning. For example, 'break in' is usually intransitive when it is used in the sense of 'get into a place by force'. But 'break in' is transitive when it is used in the sense of 'get someone used to a new situation'.

If the door is locked, I will try to break in.

Brody liked to break in his assistants slowly.

A plane took off.

Gretchen took off her coat.

The engine cut out.

She cut out some coloured photographs from a magazine.

95 Here is a list of phrasal verbs which can be used in intransitive as well as transitive clauses, depending on which meaning is being used:

96 There are a few phrasal verbs which only have one meaning, out which can be either transitive or intransitive, it is possible to use them intransitively because the object is either obvious or can be guessed particular context.

It won't take me a moment to clear away.

Brody began to clear away the soup bowls.

97 Here is a list of phrasal verbs which have only one meaning but which can be used intransitively:

ergative phrasal verbs 98 Just as with ordinary verbs, some phrasal verbs are ergative verbs; that is, you can use the object of the transitive verb as the subject of the intransitive verb.

The guerrillas blew up the restaurant.

The gasworks blew up.

I won't wake him up just yet.

He woke up in the middle of the night.

See paragraphs 60 to 68 for information about ergative verbs.

99 Here is a list of ergative phrasal verbs:

100 In the case of some ergative phrasal verbs, the second word can be a preposition if the other thing involved needs to be mentioned, or can be an adverb if the other thing involved is clear from the context.

leaves that had been blown off the trees.

My hat blew off.

101 Here is a list of ergative phrasal verbs whose second word can be a preposition or an adverb:

object position 102 When you are using a phrasal verb in a transitive clause and the object is a short noun group, you usually have a choice as to where you put the object. It can be placed either after the second word of the phrasal verb or after the first word and before the second word.

I filled up a jar with potassium permanganate.

She filled my glass up.

He handed over the box.

Mrs Kaul handed the flowers over to Judy.

103 However, when the object consists of a long noun group, it is more likely to come after the second word of the phrasal verb, so the two parts of the phrasal verb are not separated too widely. In this way, attention is focused on the information contained in the noun group, rather than on the second word of the phrasal verb.

The authorities have turned down a request by the Argentine Embassy to examine the wreckage of the plane.

104 When the object is a pronoun such as 'me', 'her', or 'it', it usually comes before the second word of the phrasal verb. This is because it is not new information, and so it is not put in a position of prominence at the end of the clause.

I waited until he had filled it up.

George handed it over to one of the tribesmen.

105 If the object of a phrasal verb is an abstract noun such as 'hope', 'confidence', or 'support', it usually comes after the second word of the phrasal verb. So, although you can say, 'He built his business up', you usually say, 'We are trying to build up trust with the residents'. Similarly, although you can say 'He put my parents up for the night', you normally say, 'The peasants are putting up a lot of resistance'.

The newspapers whipped up sympathy for them.

They attempted to drum up support from the students.

He didn't hold out much hope for them.

106 With a small number of phrasal verbs, the object is always placed between the first and the second words of the verb. For example, you can say 'I can't tell your brothers apart' but not 'I can't tell apart your brothers'.

Captain Dean was still ordering everybody about.

I answered him back and took my chances.

Note that most of these verbs take a human object.

Here is a list of phrasal verbs which always belong in this group when they are used transitively:

Some phrasal verbs have more than one transitive sense but belong in this group when they are used with one particular meaning. For example, 'take back' belongs in this group when it means 'remind someone of something' but not when it means 'regain something'.

The scent of the hay took Ash back to long-ago evenings in Devon.

Philip took back his glasses and looked at the smoke.

Here is a list of phrasal verbs which belong in this group when used with a particular meaning:

prepositional objects 107 Remember that when a phrasal verb consists of an intransitive verb followed by a preposition, the noun group always comes after the preposition, even when it is a pronoun.

A number of reasons can account for this change.

They had dealt with the problem intelligently.

If I went away and left you in the flat, would you look after it?

There is a list of phrasal verbs which consist of an intransitive verb and a preposition in paragraph 89.

transitive phrasal verbs with prepositions 108 Some phrasal verbs consist of a transitive verb and a preposition. They have one noun group after the first word, as the object of the verb, and a second noun group after the second word, as the object of the preposition.

They agreed to let him into their secret.

The farmer threatened to set his dogs on them.

They'll hold that against you when you apply next time.

109 Here is a list of phrase verbs which consist of a transitive verb and a preposition:

preposition or adverb 110 In the case of some transitive phrasal verbs, the second word can be a preposition if the third thing involved needs to be mentioned, or can be an adverb if the third thing involved is clear from the context.

Rudolph showed them around the theatre.

Come on. I'll show you around.

111 Here is a list of transitive phrasal verbs whose second word can be a preposition or an adverb:

intransitive three-word phrasal verbs 112 Most phrasal verbs consist of two words: a verb and a preposition. However, there are a number of phrasal verbs which consist of three words: a verb, an advert, and a preposition.

Most three-word phrasal verbs are intransitive. The preposition at the end is followed by its own object.

His girlfriend walked out on him.

By the 1990's, society will have faced up to the inevitable.

He suddenly burst in on me one morning.

The local people have to put up with a lot of tourists.

Terry Holbrook caught up with me.

113 Here is a list of intransitive three-word phrasal verbs:

114 A few three-word phrasal verbs are transitive. The direct object of the verb comes immediately after the verb. A second noun group is put after the preposition, as normal.

Multinational companies can play individual markets off against each other.

Kroop tried to talk her out of it.

I'll take you up on that generous invitation.

Here is a list of transitive three-word phrasal verbs:

115 It is not possible to have indirect objects with phrasal verbs. The only objects you can have are direct objects of the verb and objects of prepositions.

116 There is one way in which a preposition that is part of a phrasal verb behaves differently from an ordinary preposition.

Normally, when the object of a preposition is put at the beginning of a question or a relative clause, it can be preceded by the preposition, especially in formal speech or writing. For example, you can say 'From which student did you get the book?' and 'the document on which he put his signature'.

However, if the preposition is part of a phrasal verb, it cannot be put before its object in such structures. You have to say 'What are you getting at?' not 'At what are you getting?', and 'the difficulties which he ran up against' not 'the difficulties against which he ran up'.

Who were they laughing at?

This was one complication he had not bargained for.

117 Most phrasal verbs which contain a transitive verb can be used in the passive. So can a few phrasal verbs which contain an intransitive verb and a preposition. See paragraphs 10.17 to 10.2

Verbs which consist of two words: compound verbs

118 There are a number of verbs such as 'cross-examine' and 'test-drive' which consist of two words. They are sometimes called compound verbs.

He would have been cross-examined on any evidence he gave.

Take the baby along if you can't find anyone to baby-sit.

It is not wise to hitch-hike on your own.

WARNING 119 It is important to realize that you cannot always guess the meaning of a compound verb if you are not already familiar with it. For example, to 'soft-soap' does not mean to use soap which is soft; it means to flatter someone in order to persuade them to do something for you.

written forms of compound verbs 120 Compound verbs are usually written with a hyphen.

No one had cross-referenced the forms before.

Children ice-skated on the sidewalks.

However, some compound verbs may be written with a space between the words and some may be written as single words. For example, both 'roller-skate' and 'roller skate' are used, as are 'baby-sit' and 'babysit'.

form of compound verbs 121 Many compound verbs consist of a noun plus a verb.

It may soon become economically attractive to mass-produce hepatitis vaccines.

Others consist of an adjective plus a verb.

Somebody had short-changed him.

122 A few compound verbs consist of words which seem strange because we do not normally use them as single words on their own, for example 'pooh-pooh' and 'shilly-shally'.

Sally had pooh-poohed the idea of three good meals a day.

Their policy was to hesitate, to shilly-shally, to temporise.

Other compound verbs look strange because they have been borrowed from foreign languages, for example 'ad-lib' and 'kow-tow'.

They ad-libbed so much that the writers despaired of them.

He resents having to kow-tow to anyone or anything.

intransitive compound verbs 123 One group of compound verbs are typically used in intransitive clauses.

Many people window-shopped in the glass of the great store.

If you keep to the rules, you may roller-skate.

He has learned to lip-read.

I baby-sat for a friend.

Here is a list of intransitive compound verbs:

124 Another group of compound verbs are typically used in transitive clauses:

You can spin-dry it and it will still retain its shape.

Send it to the laundry. Don't dry clean it.

At first we cold-shouldered him.

They ill-treated our ancestors.

Here is a list of transitive compound verbs:

125 A third group of compound verbs may be used in intransitive as well as transitive clauses.

He chain-smoked cheap cigars.

The husband is left to chain-smoke in the waiting-room.

I tried to ad-lib a joke.

The commentator decided to ad-lib.

Here is a list of compound verbs which can be transitive or intransitive:

126 Only the second part of a compound verb inflects. If the second part is used on its own as a verb, the compound verb usually inflects in the same way as the verb on its own.

See the Reference Section for an explanation of how to inflect verbs.