MOORING

1. Read the text and try to guess the new words and phrases from the context

Ships make fast to a wharf either alongside or stern to. When approaching a berth ships must proceed at slow speed. On deck, heaving lines and mooring ropes, as well we fenders, should be ready for use. The anchors must be ready to let go.

At an appropriate distance from the berth the engine is stopped and the ships headway is used to bring her alongside the wharf. This headway should be just enough to keep the ship moving ahead without losing steerage way.

If a ship has too much headway, it should be stopped by backing the ship with the engine or by letting the anchor go. As a matter of fact, only the off-shore anchor is dropped and then a heaving line is passed ashore. A head-rope, a bow spring and two breast lines are run out from the ship and secured to bollards ashore.

Working on these lines, as well as on the stern rope and stern spring which are also run out in due time, the ship is hove into her berth and made fast.

After the ship is secured in her berth, rat-guards should be placed on all the lines. For permanent moorings wire ropes are preferred to ordinary fibre ropes.

All the mooring lines should be constantly watched, as the change of weather or rise and fall of tide can make the lines either too taut or too slack and this will necessitate from time to time veering them in or out. In stormy weather the ships secured in their berths usually have to double up fore and aft.

2. Role-play the following dialogues and then work out and perform dialogues of your own.

2.1. Dialogue 1

C = Captain ; P = Pilot

C: Is taking a tug compulsory here?

P: No, it is not compulsory, but it is advisable, and I shall tell you why. There are several strong currents in the harbour and as there is a lot of traffic now, it is pretty difficult to manoeuvre in congested waters.

C: Will the tug take us only into the port or will she bring the ship alongside the wharf?

P: Yes, the tug will work the ship into her berth.

C: At what berth shall we moor?

P: We shall moor at berth No. 17

C: We will need a 15 ton crane to discharge heavy-lifts.

P: Your agent must have been informed about it as there is a 15ton crane at the berth.

C: Thats good. Which side shall we make a landing?

P: We will make a starboard side landing.

2.2.Dialogue 2

C: So, where are we going to berth?

P: Do you see. Sir, a vacant place between the two big tankers tied up stern to?

C: Do you mean those two big tankers over there with streamlined funnels?

P: Yes, thats what I mean, and thats where we should now steer for.

C: There isnt too much space there anyhow, but still enough to get the ship moored alongside. What is the depth alongside the berth?

P: The depth is five fathoms, Sir.

C: Is the bottom even there?

P: No, there must be a little hump some 30 yards from the wharf, as the bottom was recently dredged.

C: Which side shall we go alongside?

P: We will go along starboard side.

C: Shall we drop an anchor?

P: Yes, Sir. We shall drop the port anchor.

2.3. Dialogue 3

P: The ship has too much headway. Sir, I think its time to back her.

C: Slow astern! Helm a-port! You know, she swings her bow to starboard on backing.

P: I see. Now, Sir, give her a little swing to port. Steady so! Is your port anchor ready?

C: The port anchor is ready. Stand by the port anchor.

P: Let go the port anchor, Sir.

C: Let go the port anchor! Veer out the cable handsomely! Send on shore the bow spring.

P: Thats right, Sir. We must get the bow in first.

C: Yes, now we can heave the ship alongside.

P: I think, Sir, you must now steer the stern a little off the pier.

C: Good. I think Ill start heaving the bow alongside with the bow lines.

3. VOCABULARY

Words and phrases

To make fast = a se laga la cheu

To moor = a se lega, a acosta, a amara, a afurca

Wharf = cheu, debarcader

Fender = aparatoare, tranchet

To let go = a mola, a fundarisi (ancora)

Steerage way = viteza de guvernare, capacitate de a mentine drumul

Head rope/line = parima de legare prova

Bow spring/backspring forward = spring prova

Breast line = traversa

To heave, hove, hove = a aduce nava intr-o pozitie, a trage

Taut = intins

Slack = slabit

To veer in/out = a vira

To make fast alongside = a acosta/lega cu bordul

To make fast stern to = a acosta/lega cu pupa

To get moored = a acosta, a se lega

Streamlined funnel = cos de nava cu forme aerodinamice

To get berthed/tied up = a aduce nava la cheu

To bring the ship alongside the quay/to work the ship into her berth = a aduce nava la cheu

To make a starboard/port landing/to get alongside starboard/port side to = a acosta (a se lega) cu tribordul/babordul

To run out a line = a da o legatura

It is advisable = este recomandabil

To swing the bow to starboard/port = a gira, a aduce prova la dreapta/stinga

To sheer the stern from the quay = a abate pupa de la cheu

To double up fore and aft = a da dublin la prova si pupa.

4. Reading Comprehension

4.1. Read the text again and answer the following questions

How do ships make fast to a wharf?

2. At what speed should a ship approach the berth?

3. What should be made ready for use on deck?

4. What is the ships headway used for in this case?

5. What should be done if the ship has too much headway?

6. When the ship has approached the berth what line is passed ashore first?

7. What other ropes are run from the ship and secured to the bollards ashore?

8. How is the ship hove into her berth?

9. Where are rat-guards placed?

10. Why should the mooring lines be constantly watched?

11. Why should we veer in the ropes from time to time?

12. When should we veer them out?

13. In what weather should we double up the lines?

14. How should the lines be watched if the weather is changeable?

4.2.Read the dialogues again and answer the following questions:

4.2.1. Dialogue 1

1. What did the pilot say about taking a tug?

2. Why was taking a tug advisable?

3. Was there heavy traffic in the port?

4. What did the pilot say about manoeuvering in congested waters?

5. How far was the tug to take that ship?

6. What did the captain need a crane for?

7 Was there any crane at the berth?

8.Was the ship to be berthed port side to?

4.2.2. Dialogue 2

1. Where did the pilot show a vacant place for the ship?

2. What did the captain say about it?

3. Why did he ask the pilot about the depths?

4. Was the bottom even alongside that berth?

5. Which side was the ship going to berth?

4.2.3. Dialogue 3

What did the pilot say about the ships headway?

How did the captain stop her headway?

Why did he command Helm-a-port when going astern?

Which anchor did the captain order to let go?

Which rope did he order to be sent ashore first?

5. Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) Relating to Berthing and Unberthing

5.1. Berthing

We will berth port/starboard side alongside = Vom acosta cu bordul babord/tribord

We will moor to (a ) buoy(s) ahead and astern = Ne vom lega la (o) geamandura/geamanduri in prova si in pupa.

We will moor alongside = Vom acosta cu bordul

We will moor to dolphins = Ne vom lega la piloti

Send out(head/stern/breast) lines = Dati parimeprova/pupa/traversa

Send outspring(s) forward/aft = Datispring(uri) prova/pupa

We will useshore (head/stern/breast) lines/wires = Vom folosi parime/sirme/prova/pupa/traverse de la mol (cheu)

Do you have tension winches? = Aveti vinciuri de intindere?

Have heaving lines ready forward and aft = Pregatiti bandule la prova si pupa

Send a (heaving/head/stern/breast) line ashore = Dati o parima bandula/prova/pupa/traversa la cheu

Have a messenger line ready = Pregatiti o parima intermediara

Use the centre/panama lead forward/aft = Folositi nara centrala/panama din prova/pupa

Use the bow lead = Folositi nara din centru

Use the port/starboard quarter lead = Folositi nara din pupa babord./tribord.

Heave online(s)/spring(s) = Virati parima/partmele/springul/springurile

Pick up the slack on theline(s)/spring(s) = Luati din banda parimei/parimelor/springului/springurilor

Heave away = virati

Stop heaving = Stop virarea

Slack awayline(s)/spring(s) = Filati parima/parimele/springul/springurile

Stop slackingline(s)/spring(s) = Stop filarea parimei/parimelor/springului/springurilor

Hold on line(s)/spring(s)= Tine parima/parimele/springul/springurile

Heave in easy = Vira usor

Heave alongside = Trageti pe parime de-a lungul cheiului

Keep lines tight = Tine parimele intinse

Do not break the lines = Nu rupe parimele

Report the forward/aft distance to = Raporteaza distanta prova/pupa la

We have to movemetres ahead/astern = Trebuie sa ne deplasammetri in prova/pupa

We are in position = Suntem in pozitie

5.2. Unberthing

Is/are the engine(s) ready? = Este/sunt motorul/motoarele gata?

How long does it take to have the engine(s) ready? = Cit dureaza pregatirea motorului/motoarelor?

It takesminutes to have the engine(s) ready? = Dureazaminute pentru pregatirea motorului/motoarelor

Are you ready to get underway? = Sunteti gata de mars?

Prepare to let go Pregatiti de molat

Single upline(s) andsprings forward and aft = Reduceti parima/parimelesi springul/springurileprova si pupa.

Slack away (head/stern/breast) line = Filati parima/prova/pupa/traversa

Slack away (forward/aft) spring = Fila springul prova/pupa

Heave on (head/stern) line = Vira parima prova/pupa

Heave on (head/stern) spring = Vira springul prova/pupa

Let go everything forward/aft = Mola toate parimele la prova/pupa

Let go (head/stern) line = Mola parima.prova/pupa

Let go towing line = Mola parima de remorcaj

Let go spring = Mola springul

Keep someone forward to stand by the anchor = Tineti pe cineva in prova sa pregateasca ancora

6.Standard Marine Communication Phrases in context.

Role play the berthing scenario below and then imagine and act out a berthing/unberthing scenario of your own.

The Pastoria is coming up the river on the flood tide. Her berth is on her starboard side, and six cables ahead. The Chief Officer is on the forecastle and is giving the boatswain orders.

Chief Officer: Anchors are clear; got the heaving lines, fenders and mooring ropes ready, boatswain?

Boatswain: Yes, Sir.

Chief Officer: The Captain is going to take her round, now.

The next thing, after seeing that the equipment is ready, is to turn the ship round and stem the tide. We are now a little way past our berth and Captain Jones is doing this.

Captain: Hard-a-starboard. Stop her. Full ahead.

Helmsman: Hard-a-starboard, Sir.

3^rd Officer: Full ahead, Sir.

Captain: Midship. Stop her. Full astern.

Helmsman: Midship

3^rd Officer: Full astern, Sir.

Captain: Stop her. Port a bit.

3^rd Officer: Stop her, Sir.

Helmsman: Port a bit.

The Pastoria was turned around by this manoeuvre. Now she is stemming the tide.

Captain: Slow ahead. Steady as you go.

3^rd Officer: Slow ahead, Sir.

Helmsman: Steady as you go, Sir.

The ship is now approaching the berth against the tide, and Captain Jones has given us a slight cant towards it. On the forecastle, the Chief Officer says:

Chief Officer: Heaving line ready? Bend on the head rope. Now pay her out.

The shore party makes her head rope fast.

Captain: Stop her.

3^rd Officer: Stop her, Sir.

Now the weight comes on the head rope and the ship is dropping alongside. On the stern of the Pastoria the Second Officer is in charge. He says:

Captain: Make fast your stern rope.

Stern rope, breast ropes and spring are now led ashore and made fast. On the bridge, the Captain says:

Captain: Ring Finished with the engine, Third.

3^rd Officer: Finished with the engines, Sir.

Captain: Very good. Helmsman, finished with the wheel.

Helmsman: Finished with the wheel, Sir.

6.1. Vocabulary and expressions used in the text above.

To come up the river = A naviga in amonte

Flood tide = Perioada de flux

Berth = Dana

To stem the tide = A naviga contra mareei

To give a slight cant = A aduce usor

Heaving line = Bandula

To bend on = A lega

To pay out = A fila

Shore party = Echipa de la cheu

Now the weight comes on the head rope = Acum parima prova fiind solicitata

The ship is dropping alongside = Nava vine prea repede la cheu

Make fast your stern rope = Voltati parima pupa

Let ashore = dati (paimele) la cheu

7. Read the following excerpts from the Pilot Book and then discuss the information you can derive. To what extent is this information important when entering or leaving the harbour?

BERTHING

Berths. Piers Nos 1 and 2 project 137m SSE from a seawall mile NW of Point Sinet; there are depths of 8.5m along both sides of each pier. A vessel 168.5m in length with draught of 8.7m has berthed at No2, the W pier; it is recommended, however, that the maximum draught for entering Carenage Bay should be 8.2m and that berthing should only take place at or near HW. Submarine cables exist close SE of Pier No1 and off the NE shore of the bay.

Approach. White framework towers stand on the head of Pier No2 and 1 cables NNW; in line, bearing 346 s, they lead towards this pier. Care should be taken not to get W of the alignment, to avoid the shoal depths in the W part of Carenage Bay.

WHARVES. In the NE corner of Chaguaramas Bay, the Aluminium Co. of Canada has two wharves for handling bauxite and manganese ore. The W wharf, for loading is 275m in length with a depth of 9.1m alongside; it is equipped with fixed cranes and a transporter. The N wharf, for discharging, is 122m in length with a depth of 7.6m alongside and is equipped with two 4-ton travelling grabs.

Berths. A pier projecting S from the shore is 297m long on the W side, which is for loading, and 206m long on the E side, for discharging; the berths on both sides are dredged to 11m.

Secure anchorage can be obtained to mile off the pierhead.

Approach. The pier is approached from SW with the leading lights at the terminal in line, bearing 042 s. The range of the lights may be much reduced due to the bauxite dust.

The front light (10s 40.9'N, 61s 36.0' W) (white square daymark with black stripe) is situated at the N end of the discharging berth.

The rear light (white square daymark with black stripe) is situated 180m from the front light.

A dredged approach channel on the leading line, and a turning basin between it and the pier, were dredged to 11m in 1963

The NE end of the approach channel and the turning basin are marked by 3 light-buoys and a buoy.

WHARVES

Kings Wharf, at the E end of Grier basin, is 1189m in length; it comprises berths Nos1 to 6, for general cargo vessels and tourist vessels with a draught up to 9.1m

Berth No 6A,extending NW from Kings Wharf, is a Container terminal 330m in length with a planned depth alongside of 9.7m; it is equipped with two 40-ton gantry cranes, each capable of handling 20 containers an hour.

Kings Wharf Extension, at the NW end of Grier Basin, is 365m in length; it comprises Berths Nos 7 and 8, and can accommodate vessels with a draught up to 9.1m. This wharf is backed by malasses tanks (for transhipment) and oil tanks. There are dolphins close NW of the wharf.

The wharves are equipped with cranes up to 36 tons capacity.

Smaller wharves and jetties at the port are:

Saint Vincent Jetty (10s38.7'N, 61s 30.9' W) with a depth of 2.4m alongside.

Guide Jetty, close NW of Saint Vincent Jetty, has depths on its S side of 4.0m at the outer end and of 2.7m at the inner end, and a depth on its N side of 2.4m

Saint Vincent Wharf close N of Guide Jetty, has a depth of 1.8m alongside.

Queens Wharf, close E of Saint Vincent Jetty has a depth of 1.8m alongside.

A pier extends SSE from the shore 2 cables E of Saint Vincent Jetty.

Schooners and inter-island coasting vessels berth in this part of the port.

The Harbour Masters Office is situated near the root of Saint Vincent Jetty.

The customs house stands close N of Queens Wharf.

PIERS 

Two piers project W from the E side of the turning basin. The N or solids pier can accommodate a vessel 91m in length, with a draught of 5.6m, and is equipped with a 10-ton mobile crane; it is used for discharging sulphur and plant equipment, and loading bulk and bagged fertilisers and sulphuric acid in drums.

The S or Liquids pier is for vessels up to 1000 dwt, with a draught of 8.5m, and has two dolphins off its head on which vessels normally berth heading S. This pier handles liquid ammonia, molasses and petroleum gases through pipelines, and bulk sugar by overhead conveyors and gantry.

SINGLE POINT MOORING

2.130a

A single point mooring (SPM) buoy (orange; light flashing 4 white every 15 seconds; fog horn) is situated 2 miles WNW of the island berths (10s19.8'N, 61s 29.3'W).

Three floating and lighted black and orange hoses, 288m in length, extend as a single unit from the mooring buoy.

The depth at the mooring is 24m, but it decreases to 23m about mile E of the buoy.

Tankers up to 260 000dwt and 22.4m draught can secure to the buoy, normally only by day, and must keep main engines at immediate readiness whilst there.
Portable RT sets are available for tankers at the buoy.

The emergency signal to stop pumping is a continuous blast on the ships whistle.

BERTH AND APPROACH CHANNEL

The jetty, a solid structure extending 4 cables WNW from Point-a-Pierre (10s19.3' N, 61s 28.1' W), has two freighter berths, one on each side.

No 7 Berth comprises the head of the jetty, with a dolphin and catwalk close off it, and is used for supplying fuel oil, lubricants and fresh water.

No 8 Berth is the only one where stores can be handled and has a mobile crane.

The approach channel to these berths is entered 1 miles WNW of the head of the jetty and is marked by light-buoys, numbered from W:

N side by No 2, 4, 6 and 8 Light-buoys (red can; lights quick flashing or flashing red) and:

S side by Nos 1, 3, and 5 Light-buoys (black flashing green).

A conical buoy marks the W edge of shoal water close N of the jetty.

Four mooring buoys exist 4 cables N of the head of the jetty.

The least charted depth in the approach channel is 11.6m

An island jetty is situated 1 miles WNW of Point-a-Pierre; it is marked by a light and comprises several dolphins. No 6 Berth North and number 6 Berth South lie on either side of the island, respectively.

No 5 Berth is a fixed platform with dolphins, situated 2 cables ESE of the island jetty

THE VIADUCT, supported on concrete piles, extends nearly 1 mile WSW from the S side of Pointe-a-Pierre dolphins off the N side of its outer part provide No1, No2 North, No3 North, and No4 Berths. These berths are approached through an area, indicated on the plan, with a minimum charted depth of 13.1m; the S side of the entrance to this area is marked by No7 Light buoys (black conical, white stripes; light flashing white), moored 6 cables WNW of the head of the viaduct (10s 18.9'N, 61s 28.9' W).

Off the S side of the outer part of the viaduct are No 2 South and No 3 South Berths, with dolphins. These berths are approached through a narrow channel which is extended between Nos 9 and 10 Light-buoys, moored 2 cables WSW of the head of the Viaduct; the channel leads into the turning basin, with a least charted depth of 58m, the limits of which are marked by conical buoys and, at its SE corner, by a light.

BERTHS

A floating stage off the customs house pier is 90m in length, with depths alongside of 9.1m at high river and 4.8m at low river. Berthing is not difficult; a vessel approaches the stage stemming the current and keeping a careful watch for the counter-current which is no strong. There are three berths alongside, or close to, the river bank for local traffic; cargo is worked by means of temporary gangways rigged to the bank. Vessels may not take the ground as the river bed is both steep and uneven.

The floating stage has a system of elevators with a capacity of 10 tons to the top of the river bank, and a 7-ton mobile crane. There is also a 25-ton crane on the custom house pier.

No regular landing places exist; boats go alongside anywhere at the city.

BERTH

Pier. An iron pier on concrete piles extends 128m ENE from the W shore of Ensenada Macuro; at its head, there is a loading platform 20m long with a conveyor belt and loading tower, from which a light is exhibited.

Vessels up to 80m in length are berthed alongside the head of the pier, starboard side to, using the port anchor and securing to three mooring buoys, one on the starboard bow and one on each quarter. It has been reported that a maximum draft of 7.9m is allowed alongside the pier.

BERTHS

A quay on the inner side of the S breakwater, near its head, is 130m in length and has a depth of 7.3m alongside.

A quay on the inner side of the N breakwater, 5 cables from its head, is 170m in length with depths from 7.3m to about 4m alongside.

A pier for small craft, situated 1 mile NNE of the harbour.

Two boat piers project from the W side of the harbour.

PIERS

There are 4 piers, all with breasting and mooring dolphins:

Muelle No1 is 106m in length and can berth vessels 137m in length with a draught of 7.0m.

Muelle Nos 2 and 3, for the larger tankers, are situated down the river from Muelle No1; both piers are T-headed with depths of 10.7m alongside.

Muelle No4, situated up the river from Muelle No1, is T-headed and has a depth of 4.3m alongside, it is used by small vessels.

Berthing and unberthing are carried out throughout the day and night, but only during the flood tide. However, vessels may leave Muelle No3 at any stage of the tide.

BERTHS AND WHARVES

WHARVES

Of the eight principal wharves along the river frontage, the Guyana National Trading Corporation Wharf (6s49.0'N, 58s10.1'W) is 280m in length with a depth of 4.8m alongside, but some wharves have depths up to 6.0m alongside.

Vessels work cargo, except bulk sugar, with their own appliances.

The Demerara Sugar Terminal, situated at the S end of the port, has a wharf 126m in length, with a least depth of 5.5m alongside and can accommodate vessels up to 161m in length; the loading rate is 500 tons an hour with two chutes.

As the bottom is soft mud along the wharves, vessels can safely take ground at LW.

8. GRAMMAR: MODAL VERBS-GENERAL

The modal auxiliary verbs or modal verbs are can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, ought to, must, need and dare.

8.1.Use

We use modal verbs to talk about, for example, possibility, willingness, ability, obligation, certainty and permission.

e.g. It might rain. (possibility)

Will you help me? (willingness)

Can she swim? (ability)

You must be home by 11 oclock. (obligation)

You havent eaten all day. You must be hungry. (certainty)

May I borrow your car? (permission)

8.1.2.Form

We form the affirmative by putting the modal verb between the subject and the full verb.

I can swim

We should go now.

Modal verbs take the same form in all persons. There is no-s ending in the third person singular.

She can swim.

He should go now.

After all modal verbs (except ought) we use the infinitive without to e.g. swim, go etc.

After ought we use to + infinitive e.g. to swim, to go etc.

We form the negative by putting nt/not after the modal verb.

e.g. She cant swim

We shouldt go.

It might not rain.

We form questions by inverting the subject and the modal verb. Compare:

e.g. She can swim.- Can she swim?

We should go Should we go?

Note that we do not use do in questions and negatives.

We can use the structure modal verb+be+-ing

e.g. Its getting late. We really must be going now.

We sometimes use expressions such as be able to, be allowed to and have to instead of modal verbs. These expressions give us certain meanings and forms which are not possible with modal verbs.

e.g. Id like to be able to play the piano.(Can has no infinitive)

She had to go to the doctors yesterday. (Must is not used to talk about the past)

When we talk about the past, we can use modal verb + have = past participle. We use this structure to talk about things that possibly happened or things that did not happen.

e.g. Peter is late. He may have missed his train( Perhaps he missed/has missed his train)

I feel really tired today. I should have gone to bed earlier last night.( But I did not go to bed very early last night.)

8.2. Ability:can. Could, be able to

8.2.1. Can

We use can to talk about ability. The negative of can is cannot(cant)

e.g. Can you swim?

He can play the guitar

I cant open this bottle.

Can you meet me tomorrow evening?

We can use be able to instead of can e.g. Are you able to swim? (but can is more common)

82.2. Could and was/were able to

We can use could to say that someone had the general ability to do something in the past.

e.g. I could swim when I was 4 years old.

My sister could talk when she was 15 months old.

We also use was/were able to with this meaning.

e.g. I was able to swim when I was 4 years old.

But when we want to say that someone had the ability to do something, and that they did it in a particular situation, we must use was/were able to (could is not possible)

e.g. Even though Id hurt my led, I was able to swim back to the boat.

The manager wasnt in the office for very long, but we were able to speak to him for a few minutes.

We can use managed to (+ infinitive) or succeeded in (+ -ing form) instead of was/were able to in this meaning.

e.g. Even though Id hurt my leg, I managed to swim back to the boat/ I succeeded in swimming back to the boat.

We normally use managed to or succeeded in when the action was difficult to do.

There is an exception with the verbs of perception see, hear, smell, taste, feel, and some verbs of thinking e.g. understand, remember. We use could with these verbs when we actually did these things in particular situations.

e.g. We could see a man in the garden.

I could hear a noise outside my bedroom door

We use could not (couldnt) for both general ability and particular situations.

e.g. My grandmother couldnt dance.

He tried very hard, but he couldnt swim back to the boat.

8.2.3. Could have

We use could have + past participle to say that someone had the ability or the opportunity to do something in the past but did not do it.

e.g.You could have helped me. Why didnt you?

I could have gone to China on holiday last year, but I decided not to.

Expressing ability in other forms:be able to

Can has no infinitive, -ing form or participles. So, when necessary. we make these forms with be able to.

e.g. Id like to be able to play the piano.

In the future, people will be able to live on other planets.

She enjoys being able to speak foreign languages.

Ive been able to drive since I was 18.

8.3. Permission: can, could, may, might, be allowed to

8.3.1. Asking for permission

e.g. Can I borrow your dictionary?

Could I ask you a personal question?

May I make a suggestion?

Could is less direct and more polite than can hare. May is more formal than can and could, but can and could are more common.

We can also use might to ask for permission in a less direct, more formal style.

Might I make a suggestion?

8.3.2. Giving permission

When we give permission, we use can or may 9but not could or might)

e.g. Can I use your pen for a moment? Yes, of course you can.

You can borrow my camera if you want to.

Could I make a suggestion? Of course you may.

8.3.3. Talking about permission

When we talk about things that are already permitted or not permitted (e.g. when there is a law or a rule), we use can(t) or be (not) allowed.

e.g. You cant smoke/arent allowed to smoke in this room.

You can/are allowed to get married in Britain when you are 16.(Thats the law)

The children normally go to bed at 9 oclock, but they can stay up/are allowed to  stay up later on Saturdays. (Their parents have decided this.)

8.3.4. Could and was/were allowed to

We use could to say that we had general permission to do something in the past.

e.g. When I was 18, I could borrow my parents car whenever I wanted to.

When I was 18, I was allowed to borrow my parents car whenever I wanted to.

But when we want to say that someone had permission to do something and they did it in a particular past situation, we must use was/were allowed to (could is not possible)

e.g. I was allowed to borrow my parents car last night.( Not: I could borrow)

8.4. Obligation and necessity (1); must, have to, have got to

8.4.1. Must and have to

We use both must and have to to express obligation or necessity, but there is sometimes a difference between them:

We normally use must when the authority comes from the speaker. You must be home by 10 oclock. (I insist). Ive got a terrible pain in my back. I must go and see the doctor. (I think it is necessary). You must drive carefully. (I insist).

We normally use have to when the authority comes from outside the speaker. I have to be home by 10 oclock.(My parents insist) I have to go and see the doctor at 9.00 tomorrow morning. (I have got an appointment.) you have to drive on the left in Britain.(That is the law)

We only use must (+infinitive) to talk about the present and the future. When we talk about past obligation or necessity, we use had to.

e.g. I had to work late yesterday.

Must has no infinitive, -ing form or participles. So, when necessary, we make these forms with have to.

e.g. Ill have to work late tomorrow.

He hates having to get up early.

Shes had to work hard all her life.

Note that in questions and negatives with have to we use do/does in the present simple and did in the past simple.

e.g. What time do you have to start work?

We dont have to hurry. Weve got plenty of time.

Did you have to walk home last night?

8.4.2.Have got to

We often use have got to instead of have to to talk about obligation and necessity. Have got to is more informal.

e.g. I have to hurry. Ive got to hurry.

Do you have to go? Have you got to go?

We normally use have to, not have got to, for things that happen repeatedly, especially when we use one-word adverbs of frequency e.g. always, often. Compare:

e.g. I always have to work late on Wednesday evenings Ive got to work late this evening.

Do you often have to get up early? Have you got to get up early tomorrow?

We use got mostly in the present. To talk about the past, we normally use had to, not had got to.

e.g. I had to work late last night.

8.5. Obligation and necessity (2): mustnt, dont have to, dont need to, havent got to, neednt

Compare mustnt and dont have to

Annie has got a bad cold. You mustnt get up today.

Sally is on holiday. I dont have to get up today.

We use mustnt when there is an obligation not to do something.

e.g. You mustnt get up today.(=Do not get up.)

You mustnt wash that sweater. It has to be dry-cleaned(=Do not wash it.)

We use dont have to when it is not necessary to do something.

e.g. I dont have to get up today. (=It is not necessary to get up)

You dont have to wash that shirt. It isnt dirty.(=It is not necessary to wash it.)

We can also use dont need to, havent got to or neednt to to say that it is not necessary to do something.

e.g. I dont need to get up today.

I havent got to get up today.

I neednt get up today

Note that we often use neednt when the speaker gives someone permission not to do something.

e.g. You neednt pay me back the money until next week. (= I give you permission not to pay me back the money until then.)

8.6. Neednt have and didnt need to

Neednt have + past participle says that someone did something, but it was not necessary- it was a waste of time.

e.g. I neednt have made so much food for the party. Nobody was very hungry. (= it was not necessary to make so much food, but I did,)

I neednt have told Kate what happened. She already knew. (=It was not necessary to tell Kate, but I did)

Didnt need to + infinitive says that something was not necessary (but it does not say if someone did it or not).

e.g. She neednt have waited. (=It was not necessary to wait, but she did.)

She didnt need to wait.(=It was not necessary to wait: we dont know if she did or not.)

They neednt have worried. (=It was not necessary to worry, but they did.)

They didnt need to worry.(=It was not necessary to worry; we dont know if they did or not)

When we use didnt need to, it often means that someone did not do something (because it was not necessary).

e.g. I didnt need to unlock the door because it was already unlocked.

I didnt need to write to you so I phoned you instead.

But we can also use didnt need to (with stress on need) when something was not necessary, but someone did it.

e.g. I didnt need to write to you, but I wrote to you anyway.

8.7. Obligation and advice: should, ought to, had better, be supposed to, shall

Should and ought to

We can use both Should and ought to talk about obligation and duty, to ask for and give advice, and , in general, to say what is right or good.

e.g. You should learn to swim/You ought to learn to swim.

You shouldnt tell lies./You oughtnt to tell lies.

What do you think I should do?/What do you think I ought to do?

Should and ought to are very similar in meaning, but we often prefer ought to to talk about authority which comes from outside the speaker e.g. from laws or rules

Note that after should, we use the infinitive without to e.g. learn, tell, but after ought we use to+infinitive e.g. to learn, to tell.

We use should have/ought to have + past participle to say that someone did the wrong thing in the past.

e.g. I should have posted this letter yesterday, but I forgot. (I did not post it)

I am really tired this morning. I shouldt have stayed up so late last night.(I stayed up late)

Havent you finished your homework yet? You ought to have done it last night. (You did not do it)

8.7.2Had better

Had better+ infinitive without to expresses a strong recommendation in a particular situation.

e.g. Im going to an interview tomorrow. Id better iron my shirt.

Its going to be cold tonight. Wed better turn on the heating.

We always use had not have with better in this structure, but the meaning is present or future, not past

We form the negative with had better not.

e.g. Wed better not be late.

Had better often suggests a kind of threat or warning, and is stronger than should or ought to.

8.7.3Be + supposed to

We can use supposed to to talk about what people are expected to do because of an arrangement, a rule, or a duty.

e.g. Youre supposed to start work at 8.00 every morning.

Im supposed to see Maria this afternoon.

We use not supposed to to express prohibitions.

e.g. You know youre not supposed to eat in the classroom.

There is often a difference between what is supposed to happen and what really happens.

e.g. Im supposed to see Maria this afternoon, but Im not going to have enough time.

Put those sweets away! You know youre not supposed to eat in the classroom.

He was supposed to phone me yesterday, but he didnt.

8.7.4.Shall

We can use shall I? When we want to know someones opinion, or when we want advice or instructions.

e.g. Ive missed my last bus. What shall I do?

Im not sure what to do. Shall I apply for the job or not?

How long shall I cook this spaghetti?

8.8. Possibility: may, might, could

8.8.1. Present and future possibility

We use may, might and could to talk about present or future possibility.

e.g. Theres someone at the door. It may be Sarah. (=perhaps it is Sarah)

We arent sure what we are going to do tomorrow. We might go to the beach.(=Perhaps we will go to the beach.)

Wheres Simon? He could be in the living room. (=Perhaps he is in the living room.)

Might is normally a little less sure than may. Could is normally less sure than may or might.

+ + + may + + might + could

We use the negatives may not and might not (mightnt) with this meaning, but not could not.

e.g. Simon may not be in the living room(=Perhaps he is not in the living room.)

We might not go to the beach. (=Perhaps we will not go to the beach.)

Note the form: may/might/could + be + -ing

E.g. They may be having dinner at the moment. (Perhaps they are having dinner.)

8.8.2. Possibility in the past

We can use may/might/could + have+past participle to talk about possibility in the past

e.g. Where was sally last night? I think she may have been at the cinema.(=I think perhaps she was at the cinema.)

Peter is late. He might have missed his train.(=Perhaps he missed/has missed his train.)

I cant find my wallet anywhere. You could have left it at home. (Perhaps you left/have left it at home.)

She walked straight past me without saying hello. She might not have seen you.(=perhaps she didnt see you.)

8.8.2.2.We also use could and might (but not may) with have + past participle to say that something was possible in the past but did not happen

e.g. I forgot to lock my car last night. You were very lucky. Someone could have stolen it

You were stupid to try to climb that tree. You might have killed yourself.

8.9 Deduction: must, cant

8.9.1 .Must, cant

We use must in deductions to say that we are sure about something.

E.g. Its not very warm and youre not wearing a coat. You must be cold. (= I am sure that you are cold.)

Mrs Woods must know London very well. She has lived there all her life. (=I am sure that she knows London very well.)

We use cant (not mustnt) as the negative of must in this meaning. We use cant in deductions to say that something is impossible.

e.g. Peter was here a moment ago, so he cant be far away. (=It is impossible that he is far away.)

Annie cant be asleep. Theres a light on in her bedroom. (=It is impossible that she is asleep)

Note the form: must/cant + be + -ing

e.g. Youve been working hard all day. You must be feeling tired. ( I am sure that you are feeling tired.)

Simon has bought two tickets for the concert, so he cant be going on his own. (=It is impossible that he is going on his own.)

We also use can in questions about possibility.

e.g. The telephone is ringing. Who can that be?

Sally is late. Where can she be?

. Must haveand cant have

We use must/cant + have + past participle for deductions about the past.

e.g. Those shoes you bought are very nice. They must have been expensive. (=I am sure that they were expensive.)

You cant /couldnt have been at the swimming pool yesterday! The swimming pool was closed all day yesterday! (=It is impossible that you were at the swimming pool!)

We use can have and could havein questions about past possibility.

e.g. Where can they have gone ?

Sally is very late. What could have happened to her?

8.10. Requests: can, could, may, will, would

8.10.1 .Asking for something

We can ask for things with can, could and may.

e.g. Can I have a glass of water, please?

Could I have the bill please?

May I have some more coffee?

Could is less direct and more polite than can here: may is more formal than can/could.

8.10.2 .Asking for permission

We also use can, could and may to ask for permission.

e.g. Can I borrow your dictionary?

Could I ask you a personal question?

May I have a look at your newspaper?

8.10.3. Asking someone to do something

We often use can you? (=are you able to?) to ask someone to do something for us.

e.g. Can you post this letter for me?

Can you switch on the light, please?

We use could as a less definite, more polite form of can in this meaning.

e.g. Could you pass me the newspaper please?

Could you give me some advice?

We also use will you? (=are you willing to?)to ask someone to do something.

e.g. Will you switch on the light, please?

We use would as a less definite, more polite form of will in this meaning.

e.g. Would you pass this letter for me?

The phone is ringing. Would you answer it?

We also use would with the verb mind 9=object to or dislike) to make polite requests.

e.g. Would you mind switching on the light?

We sometimes make requests by using would like as a polite way of saying what we

want.

e.g. Id like a glass of water, please.

Id like to ask you a personal question.

8.11. Offers: will, shall, can, could, would

We use will to say that we are willing to do something or to offer to do something.

e.g. Ill help you with your suitcase.

Ill lend you my bicycle if you want.

Are you hungry? Ill make you something to eat.

We also use will you? In offers and invitations.

e.g. What will you have to drink?

Will you have dinner with us?

We use shall I? (=do you want me to?) to offer to do something for someone.

e.g. Shall I help you?

Shall I open the door for you?

Shall I post this letter for you?

We also use can/could(=ability) to offer to do something for someone.

e.g. I can post this letter for you.

I could lend you some money if you want.

Sometimes when we use can or could to ask for permission, we are really offering to do

Something.

e.g. Can I make you something to eat?

Could I carry that bag for you?

In these uses, could is less direct and more polite than can.

We also use would with verbs such as like, prefer and rather to make polite offers and

invitations.

e.g. Would you like to go to a party on Saturday?

Would you like me to help you?

Would you prefer to stay in or go out this evening?

8.12. Suggestions: shall, lets, why dont we, how/what about, can, could

We use shall we? To ask for and make suggestions.

e.g. Where shall we go?

What time shall we leave?

Shall we stay at home?

Shall we play tennis tomorrow?

We can also make suggestions in these ways:

e.g. Lets watch TV.

Lets go for a swim.

Why dont we(+infinitive without to)?

e.g. Why dont we go for a swim?

Why dont we play tennis?

How/What about (+-ing form/noun)?

e.g. How about playing tennis/a game of tennis?

8.12.3. We use can and could to suggest possible actions.

e.g. We can watch TV if you like.

We could go to the cinema tomorrow.

In this use, could is less direct and more polite than can.

8.13. Habits: used to, will, would

8.13.1. Used to

8.13.1.1. Use.

We use used to + infinitive to talk about past habits which are now finished.

e.g. Robert used to play football when he was younger, but he stopped playing 20 years ago.(=Robert played football regularly in the past, but he does not play now.)

Kate used to go swimming a lot, but she never goes swimming now.

When I was a child, I used to suck my thumb.

We also use used to for past states and situations which are no longer true.

e.g. Robert used to be very slim when he was younger.

I used to live in London, but I moved in 1980.

We only use used to to talk about the past. When we talk about present habits or present states, we use the present simple.

e.g. Robert never plays football now.

Kate goes sailing quite often nowadays.

I live in Manchester.

Robert is quite fat.

We do not use used to to say how long something happened.

e.g. I worked in Rome for six months.

8.13.1.2. Form

Used to + infinitive takes the same form in all persons.

I/You/He/She/It/We/You/They used to play football.

live in London.

be very slim.

The negative of used to is normally didnt use to (=did not use to)

I didnt use to live in London.

You didnt use to like classical music.

We also use never used to e.g. You never used to like classical music.

We normally form questions with diduse to?

e.g. Where did you use to live?

Did you use to like classical music?

8.13.2. Will and Would

we can use will to talk about someones typical behaviour or characteristic habits.

e.g. Simon loves music. Hell sit for hours listening to his stereo.

Kate is very kind. Shell always help people if she can.

We use would with the same meaning to talk about the past.

e.g. When I was a child my father would sometimes take me fishing.

My grandmother was very absent-minded. She would often buy something and then leave the shop without it.

Will and Would are not stressed in this use.

If will or would are stressed (), it suggests criticism.

e.g. He `will slam the door when he comes in. It really makes me angry.

She borrowed my camera without asking. She `would do a thing like that. Shes always borrowing things without asking.

8.13.2.3. Used to and would

When we talk about past habits, we can use used to or would.

e.g. When we were children, we used to/would play Cowboys and Indians together.

When I was a child, my elder brother used to/would take me to the cinema every Saturday morning.

When we talk about past states, we can use used to, but not would.

e.g. My grandfather used to be a policeman.

I used to have a moustache, but I shaved it off.

9. Grammar-Progress Test

1. Review of permission and obligation

Choose the most suitable answer-A, B or C

1. It isnt cold outside. Youwear a coat.

A mustnt B can C neednt

2. You keep out of that room. Its private.

A dont have to  B mustnt C must

You fall asleep when you drive a car.

A mustnt B neednt C must

Im going to retire soon. Then I wontwork any more.

A must B have to C can

You vote in Britain until you are 18.

A have to B can C arent allowed to

Youwear a uniform in the army.

A can B have to C mustnt

Tomorrow is a holiday. Wego to work.

A dont have to  B arent allowed to C have to

You ride a bicycle on a motorway in Britain.

A must  B dont have to C cant

2. Review of possibility, probability and deduction

Choose the correct answer-A, B or C.

Ita lovely day tomorrow.

A can be  B could b C must be

Im getting fat, I think Ieating the wrong kind of food.

A must be  B cant be C can be

Im not sure, but ISue in town last night.

A can see  B must have seen C may have seen

Mikedriving to London tomorrow. He cant drive!

A might be  B cant be C must be

My letteryesterday, but it didnt.

A must have arrived B may arrive C should have arrived

I can hear footsteps in the flat upstairs, so there someone there.

A must be  B might be C cant be

Were very busy tomorrow so wetime to visit you. We arent sure.

A could not have  B might not have C ought to have

That girl20 years old. She looks about 12!

A may be  B must be C cant be

10.Progress Test-Answer-key

1. 1.C 2.C 3.A 4.B 5.C 6.B 7.A 8.C

2. 1.B 2A 3C 4B 5C 6 A 7 B 8 C