THE PASSIVE AND THE CAUSATIVE

Passive 1

Basic uses of the passive

Agent and instrument

The person who performs an action in a passive sentence is called the agent, introduced by by. The agent may or may not be mentioned.

My purse was found by one of the cleaners.

An object which causes something to happen is called an instrument, introduced by with.

He was hit on the head with a hammer.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Most verbs with an object (transitive verbs) can be made passive. Common verbs not used in the passive include:

become, fit (be the right size), get, have, lack, let, like, resemble, suit

Some verbs have both transitive and intransitive meanings.

We arrived at the hotel at 8. (cannot be made passive)

How was the answer arrived at? (passive with a different meaning)

Verbs with two objects

Verbs which have two objects can be made passive in two ways.

I was handed a note. A note was handed to me.

Other common verbs of this type are: bring, give, lend, pass, pay, promise, sell, send, show, tell.

Verbs with object and complement

Some verbs have a noun or adjective which describes their object.

We elected Jim class representative.

Everyone considered him a failure.

When these are made passive, the complement goes directly after the verb.

Jim was elected class representative.

He was considered a failure.

Tenses

Although it is possible to form a wide range of passive tenses, the most used are present simple and continuous, past simple and continuous, present perfect simple, past perfect simple, will future, and future perfect. There are also present and past passive infinitives.

present simple: BE (conjugated in the present) + past participle of the main verb

The damage is done.

present continuous: BE (conjugated in the present) + BEING + past participle of the main verb

The damage is being done.

The house is being painted.

past simple: BE (conjugated in the past) + past participle of the main verb

The damage was done.

past continuous: BE (conjugated in the past) + BEING + past participle of the main verb

The damage was being done.

The house was being painted.

present perfect simple: BE (conjugated in the present perfect) + past participle of the main verb

The damage has been done.

The house has been painted.

past perfect simple: BE (conjugated in the past perfect) + past participle of the main verb

The damage had been done.

The house had been painted.

will future: BE (conjugated in the future) + past perfect of the main verb

The damage will be done.

The house will be painted.

future perfect: BE (conjugated in the future perfect) + past participle of the main verb

The damage will have been done.

The house will have been painted.

present infinitive: BE (in the infinitive) + past participle of the main verb

The damage is said to be done.

past infinitive: BE (in the past infinitive = to have been) + past participle of the main verb

The damage is said to have been done.

Using and not mentioning the agent

Change of focus

The passive can change the emphasis of a sentence.

Jack won the prize. (focus on Jack)

The prize was won by Jack. (focus on the prize)

Unknown agent

The agent is not mentioned if unknown.

My wallet has been stolen.

In this case, there is no point in adding an agent: by somebody.

Generalised agent

If the subject is people in general or you the agent is not mentioned.

Bicycles are widely used in the city instead of public transport.

Obvious agent

If the agent is obvious or has already been mentioned, it need not be mentioned again.

Linda has been arrested! (we assume by the police)

The company agreed to our request and a new car-park was opened.

Unimportant agent

If the agent is not important to the meaning of the sentence it is not mentioned.

I was advised to obtain a visa in advance.

Impersonality

Using the passive is a way of avoiding the naming of a specific person who is responsible for an action.

It has been decided to reduce all salaries by 10%.

In descriptions of processes, there is emphasis on the actions performed rather than on the people who perform them.

Then the packets are packed into boxes of twenty-four.

Passive 2. The causative

Have and get something done, need doing

Have something done

This usually describes a service performed for us by someone else.

Ive just had my car serviced.

It can also describe something unfortunate that happens to someone.

We have had our cars stolen so we need a lift.

This applies to a range of tenses:

Im having my flat painted next week.

I have it done every year.

Sheila had her hair done yesterday.

I was having the roof repaired when it happened.

Note the quite different colloquial expressions have someone round/over. In this case, there is no sense of a service.

We had some friends round for dinner last night.

Get something done

Get cannot be used in all the same contexts as have in this case. Get is common where there is a feeling that something must be done:

I must get my car serviced.

It is also common in orders and imperatives:

Get your hair cut!

There is also a feeling of eventually managing something in some uses:

I eventually got the car fixed.

Sue always gets things done in this office.

Need doing

The need to have a service done can be described with need doing.

Your hair needs cutting.

Passive get

Get can be used instead of be to form the passive in spoken language.

Martin got arrested at a football match.

Reporting verbs

Present reference

With verbs such as believe, know, say, think which report peoples opinions, a passive construction is often used to avoid a weak subject, and to give a generalised opinion.

With present reference, the passive is followed by the present infinitive.

People think that Smith is in England.

Smith is thought to be in England.

Past reference

With past reference, the passive is followed by the perfect infinitive.

People believe that Smith left England last week.

Smith is believed to have left England last week.

Past reporting verb

If the reporting verb is in the past, the perfect infinitive tends to follow, though not always if the verb be is used.

People thought Sue had paid too much.

Sue was thought to have paid too much.

The police thought that the thief was still in the house.

The thief was thought to still be in the house.

With passive infinitive

Everyone knows the portrait was painted by an Italian.

An Italian is known to have painted the portrait.

Two objects

If there are two objects, two versions are possible.

The portrait is known to have been painted by an Italian.

An Italian is known to have painted the portrait.

Continuous infinitive

Past and present continuous infinitives are also used.

Mary is thought to be living in Scotland.

The driver is thought to have been doing a U-turn.

Verbs with prepositions

Ending a sentence with a preposition

It is possible to end a sentence with a preposition in a sentence where a prepositional verb is made passive.

Someone broke into our house.

Our house was broken into.

By and with

With is used after participles such as filled, packed, crowded, crammed.

The train was packed with commuters.

The difference between by and with may involve the presence of a person:

Dave was hit by a branch. (an accident)

Dave was hit with a branch. (a person hit him with one)

Make to

Make is followed by to when used in the passive.

My boss made me work hard.

I was made to work hard by my boss.

Verbs + by, with

Cover and verbs which involve similar ideas, such as surround, decorate can use with or by. Cover can also be followed by in.

Common contexts for the passive

Formality

The passive is probably more common in written English, where there tends to be less use of personal reference in some contexts, since the audience may be unknown.

Change of focus

The passive is used to change the focus of the sentence, to avoid generalised subjects, and to make an action impersonal. It is common in descriptions of processes, and in scientific and technical language in general.

Activities

Both sentences in each pair have the same meaning. Complete the second sentence.

a)      The crowd was slowly filling the huge stadium.

The huge stadium was slowly being filled by the crowd.

b)      The invention of the computer simplified the work of accountants.

Since the computer the work of the accountants .. simplified.

c)      Someone has suggested that the shop should close.

It that the shop should close.

d)      Id take out some travel insurance if I were you, Mr Smith.

Mr Smith take out some travel insurance.

e)      The waitress will bring your drinks in a moment.

Your drinks in a moment.

f)       Someone used a knife to open this window.

This window a knife.

g)      You will hear from us when we have finished dealing with your complaint.

After your complaint , you will hear from us.

h)      An announcement of their engagement appeared in the local paper.

Their engagement in the local paper.

i)        Nobody ever heard anything of David again.

Nothing David again.

j)       They paid Sheila $1000 as a special bonus.

$1000 Sheila as a special bonus.

Rewrite each sentence so that it does not contain the words underlined and so that it contains a passive form.

a)      Someone left the phone off the hook all night.

The phone was left off the hook all night.

b)      The government has announced that petrol prices will rise tomorrow.

c)      A burglar broke into our house last week.

d)      People asked me the way three times.

e)      The fruit-pickers pick the apples early in the morning.

f)       Its time the authorities did something about this problem.

g)      Lots of people had parked their cars on the pavement.

h)      The government agreed with the report and so they changed the law.

i)        You have to fill in an application form.

j)       They dont know what happened to the ship.

Put each verb in brackets into the passive in an appropriate tense.

a)      The boxes have not been packed (not pack) yet.

b)      Your food (still prepare).

c)      The new ship (launch) next week.

d)      Luckily by the time we got there the painting (not sell).

e)      We had to go on holiday because our house (decorate).

f)       Im afraid that next weeks meeting (cancel).

g)      If we dont hurry, all the tickets (sell) by the time we get there.

h)      All main courses (serve) with vegetables or salad.

i)        The second goal (score) by Hughes in the 41^st minute.

j)       The cathedral (build) in the fourteenth century.

Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.

a)      A friend lent George the motorbike he rode in the race.

The motorbike George rode in the race was lent to him by a friend.

b)      At the time my aunt was looking after the children for us.

At the time our children

c)      The police have issued a description of the wanted man.

A description .

d)      It was a mistake to enter Brian for the exam.

Brian should not

e)      They said they would rather Diana didnt listen to music at work.

Diana .

f)       Johnson first became a member of parliament in 1983.

Johnson was first ..

g)      My legal advisers have told me not to say any more at this time.

I have

h)      Nobody had invited Jean to the party, which annoyed her.

As she

i)        Tony has another six months to finish his thesis.

Tony has been

j)       There is no definite decision yet about the venue of the next Olympic Games.

Nothing ..

Rewrite each sentence in a more formal style so that it contains a passive form of the word given in capitals.

a)      Sorry, but weve lost your letter. MISLAY

Unfortunately your letter has been mislaid.

b)      The police are grilling Harry down at the station. QUESTION

c)      Theyve found the remains of an old Roman villa nearby. DISCOVER

d)      Youll get a rise in salary after six months. RAISE

e)      You go in the cathedral from the south door. ENTER

f)       They stopped playing the match after half an hour. ABANDON

g)      Theyve stopped traffic from using the centre. BAN

h)      They took Chris to court for dangerous driving. PROSECUTE

i)        You usually eat this kind of fish with a white sauce. SERVE

j)       I dont know your name. INTRODUCE

Put each verb in brackets into the passive in an appropriate tense.

a)      Nothing has been seen (see) of Pauline since her car (find) abandoned near Newbury last week.

b)      As our new furniture (deliver) on Monday morning Ill have to stay at home to check that it (not damage) during transit.

c)      The new Alhambra hatchback, which in this country (sell) under the name Challenger, (fit) with electric windows as standard.

d)      For the past few days I (work) in Jacks office, as my own office (redecorate).

e)      The last time I went sailing with friends the boat (sink) in a gale. Luckily I (not invite) again since then!

f)       It (announce) that the proposed new office block . (now not build) because of the current economic situation.

g)      A major new deposit of oil (discover) in the North Sea. It (think) to be nearly twice the size of the largest existing field.

h)      Pictures of the surface of the planet Venus (receive) yesterday from the space probe Explorer which (launch) last year.

i)        A large sum (raise) for the Fund by a recent charity concert but the target of $250.000 (still not reach).

j)       No decision (make) about any future appointment until all suitable candidates (interview).

Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.

a)      People think that neither side wanted war.

Neither side is thought to have wanted war.

b)      Everyone knows that eating fruit is good for you.

Eating fruit .

c)      Everyone thought the painting had been destroyed.

The painting

d)      People say that the company bid fifty million pounds for the shares.

The company ..

e)      People say that the late Mr Johnson was difficult to work with.

The late ..

f)       People think the jewels were stolen by one of the guests.

One of the guests

g)      It is believed that the Chinese invented gunpowder.

The Chinese

h)      Apparently the ship did not sustain any damage.

The ship .

i)        It is thought that the two injured men were repairing high-tension cables.

The two injured men

j)       There is a rumour that the escaped prisoner is living in Spain.

The escaped prisoner

Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals.

a)      We believe that the government has prepared a plan. HAVE

The government is believed to have prepared a plan.

b)      We are thinking of getting someone to paint the outside of the house. PAINTED

c)      In the end I was unable to find a garage to service my car. GET

d)      People say that Mrs Turner was having business difficulties. BEEN

e)      The treasure is thought to date from the thirteenth century. IT

f)       The police towed away Alans car. GOT

g)      Your hair needs cutting GET

h)      The police believe that a professional thief stole the statue. BEEN

i)        Jills parents are making her study hard. MADE

j)       Everyone thought that Helen had missed the train. TO

Rewrite each sentence so that it ends with the word underlined.

a)      Another company has taken over our company.

Our company has been taken over.

b)      We are dealing with your complaint.

c)      We have not accounted for all the missing passengers.

d)      Someone had tampered with the lock of the front door.

e)      We dont know how they disposed of the body.

f)       I must insist that you keep to the rules.

g)      We are looking into this allegation.

h)      We will frown upon any attempts to cheat in the exam.

i)        The youngest complained that people were picking on him.

j)       Ann was well provided for in her husbands will.

Put a suitable preposition in each space.

a)      The tree had been decorated with coloured balls.

b)      The answers have been included the book.

c)      After the rugby match, Jims shorts were covered mud.

d)      The victim was struck from behind a heavy object.

e)      The house was built money that David borrowed from the bank.

f)       The cat narrowly escaped being run over a car.

g)      When the accident happened, Sue was struck flying glass.

h)      The turkey was stuffed chestnuts, and was very tasty.

i)        No one knew that Peter had been involved the investigation.

j)       When I left the casino, my pockets were crammed money.

Rewrite each sentence so that it begins It.

a)      They have decided to cancel the match.

It has been decided to cancel the match.

b)      We thought it was necessary to send a telegram.

It ..

c)      We have agreed to meet again in a fortnight.

It ..

d)      There is a rumour that the couple are to seek a divorce.

It

e)      There is confirmation of Mr Jacksons resignation.

It .

f)       We believe that the ship has sunk.

It .

g)      There was a proposal that a new offer should be made.

It .

h)      We didnt think it was a good idea.

It .

i)        We didnt think it was a good idea.

It .

j)       There has been a suggestion that I should take a holiday.

It .

Rewrite the text using the passive where possible and so that the words underlined do not appear.

Nobody knows exactly when someone invented gunpowder. People know for a fact that the Chinese made rockets and fireworks long before people used gunpowder in Europe, which occurred at about the beginning of the thirteenth century. We generally believe that gunpowder brought to an end the Age of Chivalry, since anyone with a firearm could bring down a mounted knight. In fact, people did not develop efficient firearms until the sixteenth century. They used gunpowder mainly in siege cannon when people first introduced it. Later they used it in engineering work and in mining, but they found that it was extremely dangerous. Modern explosives have now replaced gunpowder, but we still use it for making fireworks, just as the Chinese did.

It is not known exactly