Using modals - The main uses of modals

Using modals

95 Language is not always used just to exchange information by making simple statements and asking questions. Sometimes we want to make requests, offers, or suggestions, or to express our wishes or intentions. We may want to be polite or tactful, or to indicate our feelings about what we are saying.

We can do all these things by using a set of verbs called modals. Modals are always used with other verbs. They are a special kind of auxiliary verb.

Here is a list of the modals used in English:

In some grammars, 'dare', 'need', and 'used to' are also referred to as modals. In this grammar, we call these words semi-modals. They are dealt with separately in paragraphs 252 to 262.

'Ought' is sometimes regarded as a modal, rather then 'ought to'. For a further note about this, see paragraph 102.

Modals are sometimes called modal verbs or modal auxiliaries.

96 The main uses of modals are explained in paragraphs 97 to 101. Special features of modals are described in paragraphs 102 to 109.

Ways of referring to time when using modals are explained in paragraphs 110 to 117. Ways of using modals to say whether something is possible are explained in paragraphs 118 to 157. Ways of using modals when interacting with other people are explained in paragraphs 158 to 226.

Expressions which can be used instead of modals are described in paragraphs 227 to 251. Semi-modals are explained in paragraphs 252 to 262.

The main uses of modals

97 Modals are mainly used when you want to indicate your attitude towards what you are saying, or when you are concerned about the effect of what you are saying on the person you are speaking or writing to.

98 When you are giving information, you sometimes use modals to indicate how certain you are that what you are saying is true or correct. For example, if you say 'Mr Wilkins is the oldest person in the village' you are giving a definite statement of fact, if you say 'Mr Wilkins must be the oldest person in the village', the modal 'must' indicates that you think Mr Wilkins is the oldest person, because you cannot think of anyone in the village who is older than Mr Wilkins. If you say 'Mr Wilkins might be the oldest person in the village', the modal 'might' indicates that you think it is possible that Mr Wilkins is the oldest person, because he is very old.

99 You can use modals to indicate your attitude towards the things you intend to do, or intend not to do. For example, if you say 'I won't go without Simon', you are expressing strong unwillingness to do something. If you say 'I can't go without Simon' you are expressing unwillingness, but at the same time you are indicating that there is a special reason for your unwillingness, if you say 'I couldn't go without Simon', you are indicating that you are unwilling to go without Simon, because to do so would be unfair or morally wrong.

100 When you use language, you are affecting and responding to a particular person or audience. Modals are often used to produce a particular effect, and the modal you choose depends on several factors, such as the relationship you have with your listener, the formality or informality of the situation, and the importance of what you are saying.

For example, it would normally be rude to say to a stranger 'Open the door', although you might say it in an emergency, or you might say it to a close friend or a child. Normally, you would say to a stranger 'Will you open the door?', 'Would you open the door?', or 'Could you open the door?', depending on how polite you want to be.

101 Modals have special uses in three kinds of complex sentence:

they are used in reported clauses

Wilson dropped a hint that he might come.

I felt that I would like to wake her up.

For more information about reported clauses see Chapter 7.

they are used in conditional structures

If the bosses had known that he voted liberal, he would have got the sack.

If only things had been different, she would have been far happier with George.

For more information about these structures see paragraphs 8.25 to 8.42.

they are used in purpose clauses.

He stole under the very noses of the store detectives in order that he might be arrested and punished.

They marched us through the town, so that they could say to the people, 'Look at the great British army.'

For more information about these structures see paragraphs 8.47 and 8.48.

Special features of modals

102 Modals are followed by the base form of a verb.

I must leave fairly soon.

I think it will be rather nice.

The rich ought to pay the tuition fees of their sons and daughters.

Note that 'ought' is sometimes regarded as a modal, rather than 'ought to'. 'Ought' is then said to be followed by a 'to'-infinitive.

103 Sometimes a modal is followed by the base form of one of the auxiliary verbs 'have' or 'be', followed by a participle.

When a modal is followed by 'be' and a present participle, this indicates that you are talking about the present or the future.

People may be watching.

You ought to be doing this.

The play will be starting soon.

When a modal is followed by 'have' and a past participle, this indicates that you are talking about the past.

You must have heard of him.

She may have gone already.

I ought to have sent the money.

In passive structures, a modal is followed by 'be' or 'have been' and a past participle.

The name of the winner will be announced.

They ought to be treated fairly.

Such charges may have been justified.

A modal is never followed by the auxiliary verb 'do', or by another modal.

no inflections 104 Modals do not inflect. This means there is no '-s' form in the third person singular, and there are no '-ing' or 'ed' forms.

There's nothing I can do about it.

I am sure he can do it.

I must leave fairly soon.

She insisted that Jim must leave.

'Could' is sometimes thought to be the past tense of 'can'. This is discussed in paragraphs 113 and 11

negatives 105 Negatives are formed by putting a negative word such as 'not' immediately after the modal. In the case of 'ought to', you put the negative word after 'ought'. 'Can not' is usually written as one word, 'cannot'.

You must not worry.

He ought not to nave done.

I cannot go back.

After 'could', 'might', 'must', 'ought', 'should', and 'would', 'not' is often shortened to '-n't' and is added to the modal.

You mustn't talk about Ron like this.

Perhaps I oughtn't to confess this.

'Shall not', 'will not', and 'cannot' are shortened to 'shan't', 'won't', and 'can't'. 'May not' is not shortened at all.

I shan't get much work done tonight.

He won't be finished for at least another half an hour.

I can't go with you.

questions 106 Questions are formed by putting the modal in front of the subject. In the case of 'ought to', you put 'ought' in front of the subject and 'to' after it.

Could you give me an example?

Ought you to make some notes about it?

Mightn't it surprise people?

Why could they not leave her alone?

There are many questions we cannot answer, but must we not at least ask them?

107 Models are used in question tags.

They can't all be right, can they?

You won't forget the canary, will you?

With a negative tag, the shortened form of the negative is used.

It would be handy, wouldn't it?

It'll give you time to think about it, won't it?

Question tags are explained in paragraphs 10.122 to 10.130.

108 In spoken English, when 'will' and 'would' are used after a pronoun, they are often shortened to '-'ll' and '-'d' and added to the pronoun.

I hope you'll agree.

She'll be all right.

They'd both call each other horrible names.

If I went back on the train, it'd be better.

'Will' and 'would' cannot be shortened like this when they are used on their own, without a following verb. For example, you can say 'Paul said he would come, and I hope he will', but you cannot say 'Paul said he would come, and I hope he'll'.

109 You sometimes use a modal on its own, without a following verb. You do this when you are repeating a modal. For example, if someone says 'I expect Margaret will come tonight', you can say 'I hope she will', meaning 'I hope she will come'.

'I must go.''I suppose you must.'

'You should have become an archaeologist.''You're dead right, I should.'

If you can't do it, we'll find someone who can.

You can also omit the verb following a modal when this verb has just been used without a modal, or with a different modal. For example, if someone says 'George has failed his exam', you can say 'I thought he would', meaning 'I thought he would fail his exam'.

You learned to deal with each other. We never will.

They had come to believe that it not only must go on for ever but that it should.

However you cannot omit the verb 'be' after a modal when you have just used it without a modal. For example, if someone says 'Is he a teacher?', you cannot say 'I think he might'. You must say 'I think he might be'.

Linguistics is not yet a science and perhaps never will be.

The Board's methods are not as stringent as they could be.

Relations between the two countries have not been as smooth as they might have been.

The feature of language in which you omit certain words to avoid repeating them is called ellipsis. For more information about ellipsis in verb groups see paragraphs 9.49 to 9.69.

Referring to time

110 Modals do not usually indicate whether you are talking about the past, the present, or the future. Usually you indicate this in other ways, for example by putting an auxiliary verb and a participle after the modal. Sometimes the general context makes it clear whether you are talking about a past, present, or future event or situation.

the future: 'shall' and 'will' 111 'Shall' and 'will' are exceptions to this.

'Shall' always indicates that you are talking about a future event or situation.

I shall do what you suggested.

Eventually we shall find a solution.

'Will' usually indicates that you are talking about a future event or situation.

The farmer will feel more responsible towards his workers.

He will not return for many hours.

However 'will' is sometimes used to talk about present situations.

You will not feel much love for him at the moment.

This use of 'will' is described in paragraph 12

112 'Could' and 'would' are sometimes described as past tense forms of 'can' and 'will'. However this is true in only a few minor ways. These are explained in the following paragraphs.

ability in the past: 'could' 113 'Could' can be regarded as the past tense of 'can' if you are simply talking about the ability of a person or thing to do something.

For example, if you are talking about a living person, you can say 'He can speak Russian and Finnish'. If you are talking about a dead person, you can say 'He could speak Russian and Finnish'.

For a fuller explanation of these uses see paragraphs 119 to 121.

reported speech 114 'Could' and 'would' are sometimes used in place of 'can' and 'will' when you are reporting what someone has said.

For example, if a man has said 'I can come', you might report this as 'He said that he could come'. Similarly, if he has said, 'I will come', you might report this as 'He said that he would come'.

For a full explanation of reported speech see Chapter 7.

regularity in the past: 'would' 115 'Would' is used to talk about something that happened regularly in the past, but no longer happens.

She would sit crosslegged in her red robes.

A man with a list would come round and say you could go off duty.

When you use 'would' like this, you often add an adjunct of time.

She would often hear him grumbling.

Once in a while she'd give me some lilac to take home.

Every day I'd ring up home and asked if they'd changed their minds.

You can use 'used to' instead of 'would'. 'Used to' is explained in paragraphs 258 to 262.

thinking about the future: 'would' 116 'Would' is also used in stories to talk about the thoughts that someone is having about the future. For example, if the hero of a story is thinking that he will see a girl called Jane the next day, the author might simply say 'He would see Jane the next day'.

He would recognize it when he heard it again.

They would reach the castle some time.

117 When 'would' is used with 'not' to talk about something that happened in the past, it has a special meaning. It is used to say that someone was unwilling to do something, or refused to do something.

They just would not believe what we told them.

After all this, I wouldn't come back to the farm.

The use of modals to express unwillingness or a refusal is explained in paragraphs 200 to 205.

Indicating possibility

118 The following four sections explain the different ways in which modals are used to talk about the possibility of something happening or being done.

Paragraphs 119 to 122 explain how 'can' and 'could' are used to talk about the ability of a person or thing to do something.

Paragraphs 123 to 145 explain how modals are used to express degrees of certainty about past, present, and future situations and events.

Paragraphs 146 to 149 explain how modals are used to say that something is permissible.

Paragraphs 150 to 157 explain how modals are used to say that something is forbidden or unacceptable.

Indicating ability

119 'Can' is used to say that someone has a particular skill or ability.

You can sit read and write.

Some people can ski better than others.

He cannot dance.

the girl who can't act.

'Could' is used to say that someone had a skill or ability in the past.

the good old days when everyone could read, write and do arithmetic.

I could barely walk.

He could kick penalty goals from anywhere.

120 'Can' is also used to say that someone is aware of something through one of their senses.

I can see you.

I can smell it. Can't you?

'Could' is used to say that someone was aware of something through one of their senses on a particular occasion in the past.

I could see a few faint stars in a clear patch of sky.

I could feel my heart bumping.

Everyone in the village could hear her voice.

121 'Can' and 'could' are also used to say that something or someone is capable of having a particular effect, or of behaving in a particular way.

It can be very unpleasant.

Art can be used to communicate.

I think unions can be stupid, intransigent, pigheaded.

He could be very stiff, could Haggerty.

He could really frighten me, and yet at the same time he could be the most gentle and courteous of men.

WARNING 122 You cannot use 'can' or 'could' to say that someone or something will have a particular ability in the future. Instead you use 'be able to' or 'be possible to'.

'Be able to' and 'be possible to' can also be used to talk about someone's ability to do something in the present or the past.

'Be able to' and 'be possible to' are dealt with in paragraphs 228 to 235.

Indicating likelihood

123 The following, paragraphs explain how modals are used to express different degrees of certainty about past, present, and future situations and events.

Paragraphs 124 to 131 explain the main ways in which modals are used to express degrees of certainty.

Paragraphs 132 to 138 explain special uses of modals when talking about possible future situations.

Paragraphs 139 to 145 explain special uses of modals when talking about possible situations in the past.

assumption: 'will' and 'would' 124 You use 'will' when you are assuming that something is the case, and you do not think there is any reason to doubt it.

Those of you who are familiar with the game will know this.

He will be a little out of touch, although he's a rapid learner.

Most listeners will have heard of hormones.

Similarly, you use 'will not' or 'won't' when you are assuming that something is not the case.

The audience will not be aware of such exact details.

You won't know Gordon. He's our new doctor.

After 'you', you can use 'would' instead of 'will', if you want to be more polite.

You would agree that the Untied Stares should be involved in assisting these countries.

certainty: 'would' and 'should' 125 You also use 'would' to say that something is certain to happen in particular circumstances.

Even an illiterate person would understand that.

Few people would agree with this as a general principle.

A picnic wouldn't be any fun without you.

Alter 'I', you can use 'should' instead of 'would'.

The very first thing I should do would be to teach you how to cook.

I should be very unhappy on the continent.

belief: 'must' and 'cannot' 126 You use 'must' to indicate that you believe something is the case, because of particular facts or circumstances.

Oh, you must be Sylvia's husband.

Fashion must account for a small percentage of sales.

This article must have been written by a woman.

When you are indicating that something is not the case, you use 'cannot'. You do not use 'must not'. (See paragraph 130.)

The two conflicting messages cannot possibly both be true.

You can't have forgotten me.

He can't have said that. He just can't.

127 You use 'could', 'might', or 'may' to say that there is a possibility of something happening or being the case. 'May' is slightly more formal than 'could' or 'might'; otherwise there is very little difference in meaning between these modals.

Don't eat it. It could be a toadstool.

His route from the bus stop might be the same as yours.

In rare cases the jaw may be broken during extraction.

128 If you put 'well' after 'could', 'might', or 'may', you are indicate that it is fairly likely that something is the case.

It could well be that rich people treasure peace more highly than poor people.

You might well be right.

I think that may well have been the intention.

129 You use 'might not' or 'may not' to say that it is possible that something is not the case.

He might not be in England at all.

That mightn't be true.

That may not sound very imposing.

130 You use 'could not' or 'cannot' to say that it is impossible that something is the case.

knowledge which could not have been gained in any other way.

It couldn't possibly be poison.

Kissinger cannot know what the situation is in the country.

You can't talk to the dead.

131 'Could' is sometimes used in negative constructions with the comparative form of an adjective. You use 'could' like this to say that it is not possible for someone or something to have more of a particular quality.

I couldn't be happier.

You couldn't be more wrong.

The setting couldn't have been lovelier.

He could hardly have felt more ashamed of himself.

132 The following paragraphs explain how modals are used when you are talking about possible future situations. The uses of 'must', 'cannot', 'could', 'might', and 'may' are similar to their uses when you are talking about possible situations in the present.

133 You use 'will' to say that something is certain to happen or be the case in the future.

They will see everything.

The price of food will go up.

The service will have been running for a year in May.

'Be going to' can also be used to say that something is certain to happen in the future. This use of 'be going to' is dealt with in paragraph 237.

certainty: 'shall' 134 'Shall' is also used to say that something is certain to happen. You usually use 'shall' when you are talking about events and situations over which you have some control. For example, you can use 'shall' when you are making a resolution or a promise.

I shall be leaving as soon as I am ready.

Very well, my dear. You shall have the coat.

Of course he shall have water.

'You'll make a lot of money.''I shall one day.'

certainty: 'must' and 'cannot' 135 You use 'must' to say that something is certain to happen because of particular facts or circumstances.

Computer interviewing and rudimentary computer diagnosis must eventually lead to computer decision-making.

You use 'cannot' to say that something is certain not to happen because of particular facts or circumstances. You do not use 'must not'.

Europe cannot hope to forge a united defence policy without first setting its internal quarrels.

The repression can't last.

expectation: 'should' and 'ought to' 136 You use 'should' or 'ought to' to say that you expect something to happen.

We should be at Briceland by dinner time.

This course should be quite interesting for you.

The Court of Appeal ought to be able to help you.

It ought to get better as it goes along.

'Should' and 'ought to' are also used when you are talking about the importance of doing something. This use is explained in paragraph 219.

possibility: 'could', 'might', and 'may' 137 You use 'could', 'might', or 'may' to say that it is possible that a particular thing will happen.

England's next fixture in Salzburg could be the decisive match.

The river could easily overflow.

They might be able to remember what he said.

Clerical work may be available for two students who want to learn about publishing.

138 If you put 'well' after 'could', 'might', or 'may', you are indicating that it is fairly likely that something will happen or be the case.

When it is finished it may well be the largest cathedral in the world.

We might well get injured.

If you put 'possibly' or 'conceivably' after 'could', 'might', or 'may', you are indicating that it is possible, but fairly unlikely, that something will happen or be the case.

These conditions could possibly be accepted.

Rates could conceivably rise by as much as a whole percentage point.

talking about the past 139 The following paragraphs explain how you use modals when you are talking about possible situations in the past.

140 You use 'should' or 'ought to' with 'have' to say that you expect something to have happened already.

Dear Mom, you should have heard by now that I'm O.K.

You also use 'should' or 'ought to' with 'have' to say that something was expected to happen, although it has not in fact happened.

Muskie should have won by a huge margin.

She ought to have been home by now.

141 You use 'would' with 'have' to talk about actions and events that were possible in the past, although they did not in fact happen.

Denial would have been useless.

I would have said yes, but Julie talked us into staying at home.

You wouldn't have pushed him, would you?

142 You use 'could' or 'might' with 'have' to say that there was a possibility of something happening in the past, although it did not in fact happen.

It could have been awful.

I could easily have spent the whole year on it.

You could have got a job last year.

A lot of men died who might have been saved.

You might have found it very difficult.

143 You also use 'could', 'might', or 'may' with 'have' to say that it is possible that something was the case, but you do not know whether it was the case of not.

It is just possible that such a small creature could have preyed on dinosaur eggs.

Grandpapa might have secretly married Pepita.

I may have seemed to be overreacting.

144 You use 'might not' or 'may not' with 'have' to say that it is possible that something did not happen or was not the case.

They might not have considered me as their friend.

My father mightn't have been to blame.

The parents may not have been ready for this pregnancy.

145 You use 'could' with a negative and 'have' to say that it is impossible that something happened or was the case.

It couldn't have been wrong.

The money was not, and never could have been, the property of the Workers' Party.

Indicating permission

146 'Can' is used to say that someone is allowed to do something.

You can drive a van up to 3-ton capacity using an ordinary driving licence.

If you are giving permission for something, you use 'can'.

You can borrow that pen if you want to.

You can go off duty now.

She can go with you.

formal permission: 'may' 147 In more formal situations, 'may' is used to give permission.

You may speak.

They may do exactly as they like.

permission in the past 'could' 148 'Could' is used to say that someone was allowed to do something in the past.

We could go to any part of the island we wanted to.

WARNING 149 You cannot use 'can' or 'could' to say that someone will be allowed to do something in the future. Instead you use 'be able to'.

'Be able to' is dealt with in paragraphs 228 to 235.

Indicating unacceptability

150 Modals are often used in negative structures to say that an action is forbidden or unacceptable.

prohibition: 'cannot' 151 'Cannot' is used to say that something is forbidden, for example because of a rule or law.

Children cannot bathe except in the presence of two lifesavers.

We're awfully sorry we can't let you stay here.

prohibition: 'may not' 152 'May not' is used in a similar way to 'cannot', but is more formal.

If the publisher decides to opt for a net price, the retailer may not sell that book below the publisher's price.

Communion may not, on principle, be celebrated by one who is not ordained.

prohibition: 'will not' 153 'Will not' is used to tell someone very firmly that they are not allowed to do a particular thing. Usually, the speaker has the power to prevent the hearer from doing this thing.

'I'll just go upstairs.''You will not.'

Until we have cured you, you won't be leaving here.

prohibition: 'shall not' 154 'Shall not' is used to say formally that a particular thing is not allowed. 'Shall not' is often used in written rules, laws, and agreements.

Persons under 18 shall not be employed in nightwork.

Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State.

'Shan't' is used in a similar way to 'will not' and 'won't'.

You shan't leave without my permission.

prohibition: imperatives 155 You can also say that something is not allowed by using an imperative sentence. Imperative sentences are explained in paragraph 4 and in paragraphs 31 to 35.

undesirable actions: 'should not' 156 'Should not' is used to tell someone that an action is unacceptable or undesirable.

You should not take her help for granted.

You shouldn't do that.

You shouldn't b so unfriendly.

157 'Must not' is used to say much more firmly that something is unacceptable or undesirable.

You must not accept it.

You mustn't do that.

You mustn't breathe a word of this to anyone.

Interacting with other people

158 You often say things in order to get someone to behave in a particular way. For example, you may want someone to take a particular action, to accept an offer, or to give their permission for something to be done.

In these situations, modals are often used. The modal you choose depends on several factors. The main ones are:

the formality or informality of the situation

the relationship between yourself and the person you are speaking to

the degree of politeness you want to show.

In particular situations, other factors can be important. For example, if you are making an offer or suggestion, the modal you choose may depend on how persuasive you want co be.

159 The following sections explain how to use modals in different situations.

Paragraphs 160 to 176 explain how to give instructions and make requests.

Paragraphs 177 to 185 explain how to make an offer or an invitation.

Paragraphs 186 to 193 explain how to make suggestions.

Paragraphs 194 to 199 explain how to state an intention.

Paragraphs 200 to 205 explain how to express unwillingness or a refusal to do something.

Paragraphs 206 to 214 explain how to express a wish.

Paragraphs 215 to 219 explain how to indicate the importance of doing something.

Paragraphs 220 to 226 explain various ways of introducing what you are going to say.

Giving instructions and making requests

160 When you give an instruction or make a request, you usually use a modal in an interrogative sentence.

You use 'will', 'would', 'can', or 'could' with 'you' to tell someone to do something, or to ask someone to do something.

You use 'can', 'could', 'may', or 'might' with 'I' or 'we' or with other personal pronouns or noun groups to ask someone's permission to do something.

Instructions and requests are always made more polite by adding 'please'. 'Please' and other markers of politeness are explained in paragraph 176.

instructions and appeals 161, 'would', and 'could' are used with 'you' in two ways:

you use them to give an instruction or an order

you use them to ask for help or assistance

instructions 162 'Will' is used to give an instruction or order in a fairly direct way. It is slightly less forceful than using the imperative.

Will you please take her to her cubicle?

Will you please, at once, pack up and leave.

'Will' is used to ask for help in fairly informal situations.

Mummy, will you help me?

instructions and appeals: 'would' 163 When 'would' is used to give an instruction or order, it is more polite than 'will'.

Would you tell her that Adrian phoned?

Would you ask them to leave, please?

When 'would' is used to ask for help, it is less informal and more polite than 'will'.

Would you do me a favour?

instructions and appeals: 'could' 164 When 'could' is used to give an instruction or order, it is more polite than 'would'.

Could you make out her bill, please?

Could you just switch the projector on behind you?

When 'could' is used to ask for help, it is more polite than 'would'.

Could you show me how to do this?

appeals: 'can' 165 'Can' can be used with 'you' to ask for help. You usually use 'can' when you are not sure whether someone will be able to help you or not.

Oh hello. Can you help me? I've been trying to get a London number for ten minutes and I can't get through.

requests 166 'Can', 'could', 'may', and 'might' are used with 'I' or 'we' when you are asking for something, or are asking permission to do something.

These modals can also be used with 'he', 'she', or 'they', or with other noun groups, when you are asking for something on behalf of someone else. For example, you can say 'Can she borrow your car?' or 'Could my mother use your telephone?'

requests: 'can' 167 'Can' is used to make a request in a simple and direct way.

Can I ask a question?

'Can I change this?' I asked the box office lady, offering her my ticket.

requests: 'could' 168 'Could' is more polite than 'can'.

Could I have a bottle of Vermouth, please?

Could I just interrupt a minute?

requests: 'can't' and 'couldn't' 169 You can make a request sound more persuasive by using 'can't' or 'couldn't' instead of 'can' or 'could'. For example, you can say 'Can't' I come with you?' instead of 'Can I come with you?'.

Can't we have some music?

Couldn't we stay here?

170 'May' and 'might' are more formal than 'can' and 'could'. People used to be taught that, when asking for something, it was correct to say 'may' rather than 'can', and 'might' rather than 'could'. However 'can' and 'could' are now generally used. Requests beginning with 'might' are unusual, and are considered by most people to be old-fashioned.

May I have a cigarette?

May we have something to eat?

May I ask what your name is?

Might I inquire if you are the owner?

171 'Would like' can be used with 'I' or 'we' in a declarative sentence to give an instruction or order. It is followed by 'you' and a 'to'-infinitive clause.

Penelope, I would like you to get us the files.

'Want' can be used in a similar way to 'would like'. This use of 'want' is dealt with in paragraph 240.

172 An instruction or order can also be given using 'will' in a declarative sentence. This form is used when the speaker is angry or impatient.

You will go and get one of your parents immediately.

You will give me those now.

173 'Shall' is sometimes used in a declarative sentence to give an instruction or order. This is a very formal use.

After ten o'clock at night there shall be quietness on the upper corridor.

174 The imperative mood can also be used to give an instruction or order. This use is explained in paragraph 31.

175 You can use 'would like' or 'should like' in a declarative sentence to make a request. 'Would like' and 'should like' are followed by a 'to'-infinitive clause or a noun group.

I would like to ask you one question.

I'd like to have a little talk with you.

I should like a large cutlet, please.

176 All the ways of giving instructions or making requests described above can be made more polite by using 'please'.

Can I speak to Nicola please?

Could you tell me please what time the flight arrives?

Please may I have the key?

You can also make a request more polite by adding the name of the person you are addressing at the beginning or end of your question.

Martin, could you make us a drink?

Can I talk to you, Howard?

Another way of making a request more polite is to add an adverb such as 'perhaps' or 'possibly' after the subject of the verb.

Could I perhaps bring a friend with me?

May I possibly have a word with you, please?

Making an offer or an invitation

177 Modals are often used to make an offer or an invitation.

You use 'will' or 'would' with 'you' to ask someone to accept something, or to make an invitation.

You use 'can', 'may', 'shall', or 'should' with 'I' or 'we' when you are offering to help someone.

Some of these structures are similar to those described in the previous section.

offers and invitations: 'will' 178 'Will' is used with 'you' in an interrogative sentence to offer something to someone, or to make an invitation in a fairly informal way. You use 'will' when you know the person you are talking to quite well.

Will you have a whisky, Doctor?

Will you stay for lunch?

offers and invitations: 'would' and 'wouldn't' 179 A more polite way of offering something or making an invitation is to use 'would' with a verb which means 'to like'.

Would you like a drink?

Would you care to stay with us?

If you want to sound more persuasive without seeming impolite or insistent, you can use 'wouldn't' instead of 'would'.

Wouldn't you like to come with me?

Wouldn't you care for some more coffee?

offers of help: 'can' 180 When you are offering to do something for someone, you usually use 'can' followed by 'I' or 'we'.

Can I help you with the dishes?

Can we give you a lift into town?

offers of help: 'may' 181 'May' is also used when you are offering to do something for someone. It is less common than 'can', and is rather formal and old-fashioned.

May I help you?

May I be of service to you?

offers of help: 'shall' and 'should' 182 You can also use 'shall' or 'should' when you are offering to do something.

If you are fairly confident that your offer will be accepted, you use 'shall'.

Shall I shut the door?

Shall I spell that for you?

If you are uncertain whether your offer will be accepted, you use 'should'.

Should I give her a ring?

emphasizing ability: 'can' 183 If you want to emphasize your ability to help, you can make an offer using 'can' in a declarative sentence.

I have a car. I can drop Daisy off on my way home.

I can pop in at the shop tomorrow.

persuasive invitations: 'must' 184 If you want to make an invitation in a very persuasive way, you can use a declarative sentence beginning with 'you' and 'must'.

You must lunch with me tomorrow.

You must come and visit me.

You only use 'must' like this with people who you know well.

185 Other ways of making an offer or invitation are dealt with in paragraph 38.

Making suggestions

186 Suggestions can be made by using a modal in a declarative or interrogative sentence. The subject of the sentence is usually 'we' or 'you'.

187 You can make a suggestion by using 'could' in a declarative sentence or 'couldn't' in an interrogative sentence.

We could go sledging up at Wilmington.

You could have a nursery there.

Couldn't you just build more factories?

Couldn't some international agreement be concluded to ban these weapons?

18S If you are making a suggestion and you want to indicate that you feel strongly that it is a good idea, you can use 'should' or 'ought to'.

You should ask Norry about this.

I think you should get in touch with your solicitor.

We ought to celebrate. Let's get a bottle of champagne.

I think you ought to try a different approach.

A more polite way of making a suggestion that you feel strongly about is to use 'shouldn't' or 'oughtn't to' in an interrogative sentence.

Shouldn't we at least give her a chance?

Oughtn't we to phone the police?

189 If you are suggesting an action and you are trying to persuade someone that it should be done, you use 'must'. You only use 'must' like this when you are talking to someone you know well.

You must say hello to your daughter.

We must go to the place, perhaps have a weekend there.

190 If you want to make a suggestion in a very polite way, you can use 'might' with 'you' in a declarative sentence. 'Might' is followed by a verb meaning 'to like' or 'to want'.

You might like to comment on his latest proposal.

I thought perhaps you might like to come along with me.

You can also make a polite suggestion by using a sentence beginning with 'It might be', followed by a noun group or adjective and a 'to'-infinitive clause.

I think it might be a good idea to stop the recording now.

It might be wise to consult the wine waiter.

191 You can also make suggestions using the expressions 'might as well' and 'may as well'.

You use 'might as well' when what you are suggesting seems to be the only sensible course of action, although you are not enthusiastic about it.

He might as well take the car.

We might as well call the whole thing off.

You use 'may as well' to show that it is not important to you whether your suggestion is accepted or not.

You may as well open them all.

We may as well give her a copy.

suggesting: 'shall' 192 You can make a suggestion about what you and someone else could do by using an interrogative sentence beginning with 'shall' and 'we'.

Shall we go and see a film?

Shall we go on to question number six?

Shall we talk about something different now?

193 Other ways of making suggestions art described in paragraph 42.

Stating an intention

194 Intentions are usually stated by using 'will', 'shall', or 'must' in a declarative sentence. The subject is 'I' or 'we'.

intentions: 'will' 195 The usual way to state an intention is to use 'I' or 'we' with 'will'. The shortened forms 'I'll' and 'we'll' are very common.

I will call you when I am ready.

We will stay here.

I'll write again some time.

We'll discuss that later.

You state your intention not to do something using 'will not' or 'won't'.

I will not follow her.

I won't keep you any longer.

We won't let them through the gate.

196 You can indicate that you are very determined to do something by using the full form 'I will' or 'we will' and stressing 'will'.

You can indicate that you are very determined not to do something either by using 'I won't' or 'we won't' and stressing 'won't', or by using 'I will not' or 'we will not' and stressing 'not'.

intentions: 'shall' 197 Another way of stating an intention is to use 'I' or 'we' with 'shall'. This use is slightly old-fashioned and rather formal.

I shall be leaving soon.

I shall make some enquiries and call you back.

We shall be a very progressive group.

You can indicate that you are very determined not to do something by using 'shall not' or 'shan't'. This is more emphatic than using 'will not' or 'won't'.

I shall not return unless paid to do so.

I shan't go back there.

intentions: 'must' 198 If you want to indicate that it is important that you do something, you can use 'must' with 'I'.

I must leave fairly soon.

I must ask her about that.

I haven't seen her for ages, I must phone her up.

199 Ways of stating an intention without using a modal are explained in paragraphs 241 to 24

Indicating unwillingness or refusal

200 Unwillingness or a refusal can be expressed by using a modal in a negative declarative sentence. The subject is usually 'I' or 'we', but other personal pronouns or noun groups can be used.

201 If you want to say firmly that you are unwilling to do something, you use 'will not' or 'won't'.

I will not hear a word said against the National Health Service.

I won't leave you. You can't make me!

If you are refusing to do something, you can just say 'I won't'.

'Tell me your secret.''I won't. It wouldn't be a secret if l told you.'

'You'll just have to search every single one.''Well, I won't!'

You can use 'won't' to say that someone else is unwilling to do something.

He won't give her a divorce.

202 If you want to say that you were unwilling to do something in the past, you use 'would not' or 'wouldn't'.

He thought I was a freak because I wouldn't carry a weapon.

203 If you want to indicate that you have strong feelings which prevent you from doing something, you use 'cannot' or 'can't'.

I cannot leave everything for him.

I can't give you up.

204 'Couldn't' is used in two ways to express unwillingness to do something.

You use it to indicate that you are unwilling to do something because you are afraid, embarrassed, or disgusted.

I couldn't possibly go out now.

I couldn't let him touch me.

You use it to indicate that you are unwilling to do something because you think it would be unfair or morally wrong.

I couldn't leave Hilary behind to cope on her own.

I couldn't take your last cigarette.

205 Other ways of expressing unwillingness are described in paragraphs 245 to 247.

Expressing a wish

206 Wishes can be expressed by using a modal in a declarative sentence.

207 You can say what someone wants by using 'would' followed by a verb meaning 'to like'. After the verb meaning 'to like' you put a 'to'-infinitive clause or a noun group.

I would like to know the date.

I would prefer to say nothing about this problem.

We'd like to keep you here.

Oh, I hope it will be twins, I'd love twins.

308 You can say what someone does not want by using 'would not'.

I would not like to see it.

We wouldn't like to lose you.

Normally, when you are using 'would' with 'like' to say what someone does not want, you put 'not' after 'would'. If you put 'not' after 'like', you change the meaning slightly.

For example, if you say 'I would not like to be a student', you mean you are not a student and do not want to be one. But if you say 'I would like not to be a student', you mean you are a student and do not want to be one.

All of us would like not to have nuclear weapons.

You can also say what someone does not want by using 'would' with a verb meaning 'to dislike'.

I would hate to move to another house now.

Personally, I would loathe to be dragged into this dispute.

wishes: 'should' 209 You can also say what someone wants or does not want by using 'should'. 'Should' is less common than 'would', and slightly more formal.

I should like to live in the country.

I should hate to see them disappear.

preference: 'would rather', 'would sooner' 210 You can say that someone prefers one situation to happen by using 'would rather' or 'would sooner'.

He would rather have left it.

She'd rather be left alone.

I'd sooner walk than do any of these things.

wishes: 'would have' 211 If you want to say that someone wanted something to happen, although it did not happen, you use 'would have' and a past participle.

I would have liked to hear more from the patient.

She would have liked to remain just where she was.

USAGE NOTE 212 Another way of saying that you want something is to use 'wouldn't' with a verb or expression such as 'mind' or 'object to' which is normally used to refuse something.

I wouldn't mind being a manager of a store.

'Drink, Ted?''I wouldn't say no, Bryan,'

regret: 'would that' 213 In very old-fashioned English, 'would' is used without a subject to express a wish that a situation might be different, or to express regret that something did not happen in the past. 'Would' is followed by a 'that'-clause.

'Are they better off now than they were two years ago?''Would that they were.'

Would that the developments had been so easy.

When 'I', 'he', 'she', or 'it' is the subject of the 'that'-clause, the verb is usually 'were', not 'was'.

Would that I were young again, and she in my arms.

Two years ago we were told that they would be much better off by now. Would that they were.

hopes and wishes: 'may' 214 In very formal English, 'may' is used in interrogative sentences to express a hope or wish.

Long may they continue to do it.

May he justify our hopes and rise to the top.

Indicating importance

215 Modals can be used in declarative sentences to say that it is important that something is done. Different modals indicate different degrees of importance.

216 'Must' be used in three common ways to talk about the importance of doing something.

You use 'must' with 'you' or 'we' to urge someone to do something, because you feel it is important. 'Must not' is used to urge someone not to do something.

You must come at once.

We must accept the truth about ourselves.

You must not worry.

You mustn't let her suffer for it.

You use 'must' to say that something is required by a rule or law.

People who qualify must apply within six months.

European Community standards must be met.

You use 'must' to say that it is necessary that something happens or is done, in order that something else can happen.

Meadows must have rain.

To identify a poison you must be able either to carry out a chemical analysts or observe the poison at work on the victim.

'Have to', 'have got to', and 'need to' can be used instead of 'must' to talk about the importance of doing something. This is explained in paragraphs 243 and 249.

217 If you want to say that an action will be necessary in the future, you use 'will have to' or 'will need to'.

They will have to pay for the repairs.

Mr Smith will have to make the funeral arrangements.

You will need to cover it with some kind of sheeting.

Electric clocks will need to be reset.

218 'Shall have to' is sometimes used instead of 'will have to' after 'I' or 'we'. This is a slightly formal use.

I shall have to speak about that to Peter.

We shall have to assume that you are right.

219 'Should' and 'ought to' are used in three different ways when you are talking about the importance of doing something.

You use 'should' or 'ought to' when you are trying to help someone by advising them to do something.

Carton steel knives should be wiped clean after use.

You should claim your pension 3-4 months before you retire.

You ought to try a different approach.

You use 'should' or 'ought to' when you are saying that something is the right or correct thing to do.

We should send her a postcard from Eastbourne.

Whoever discovers the body should contact the family doctor.

We ought to stay with him.

You ought not to do that.

You use 'should' or 'ought to' with 'have' and a past participle to say that something was desirable in the past, although it did not in fact happen.

One sailor should have been asleep and one on watch.

We ought to have stayed in tonight.

A more junior member of staff ought to have done the work.

You also use 'should' and 'ought to' to say that you expect something to happen. This use is explained in paragraph 136.

Introducing what you are going to say

220 Sometimes you introduce what you are going to say by using a modal followed by a verb such as 'say' of 'ask' which refers to the act of saying something. You can also combine a modal with a verb such as 'think' or 'believe' which refers to the holding of an option.

You use a modal in order to sound more polite, or to indicate your feelings about what you are going to say.

In structures like these, the subject is usually 'I'. Sometimes you use an impersonal structure beginning with 'it' or 'you'. For example, instead of saying 'I ought to mention that he had never been there', you can say 'It ought to be mentioned that he had never been there'.

importance: 'must' 221 If you feel strongly that what you are saying is important, you use 'must'.

I must apologise to you.

I must object.

It must be said that it never really came up to expectations.

importance: 'should' and 'ought to' 222 If you feel that it is important or appropriate that something is said, you indicate that you are going to say it by using 'should' or 'ought to'.

I should explain at this point that there are two different sorts of microscope.

It should also be said that I learned a great deal from the experience.

I ought to stress that this was not a trial.

Perhaps I ought to conclude with a slightly more light-hearted questions.

politeness: 'can' and 'could' 223 If you want to say something during a discussion, you can indicate politely that you are going to say it by using 'can'.

Perhaps I can mention another possibility.

If I can just intervene for one moment.

If you want to be even more polite, you use 'could'.

Perhaps I could just illustrate this by mentioning two cases that I know of personally.

Perhaps I could just ask you this

224 You also use 'can' and 'could' when you are mentioning an opinion or a way of describing something.

'Can' suggests that you approve of the opinion or description.

English can be seen as an expressive discipline.

'Could' is more neutral.

You could argue that this is irrelevant.

You could call it a political offence.

225 'May' and 'might' can also be used to mention an opinion or a way of describing something.

'May' suggests that you approve of the opinion or description. It is more formal than 'can'.

This, it may be added, greatly strengthened him in his resolve.

'Might' also suggests that you approve of the opinion or description. You use 'might' when you think there is a possibility that the person you are talking to will disagree with you.

You might say she's entitled to get angry.

That, one might argue, is not too terrible.

226 If you are stating an opinion of your own, you can indicate politely that you are going to state it by using 'should'.

I should think it would last quite a long time.

'Would' is used in a similar way, but is less common.

I would guess it may well come down to cost.

Expressions used instead of modals

227 Several ordinary verbs and fixed expressions are used to express the same attitudes and ideas as modals. These verbs and expressions are explained in the following paragraphs. Each group of paragraphs corresponds to an earlier section in the chapter dealing with the use of modals in a particular type of situation.

228 'Be able to' and 'be possible to' can be used instead of 'can' and 'could' to say whether or not something is possible.

The subject of 'be able to' and 'be unable to' usually refers to a person of group of people, but it can refer to any living thing. It can also refer to something organized or operated by people, such as a company, a country, or a machine.

The subject of 'be possible to' is always the impersonal pronoun 'it'.

229 If you want to say that it is possible for someone or something to do something, you can use 'be able to'.

All members are able to claim travelling expenses.

The goliath frog is able to jump three metres or so.

You use 'be able to' with a negative to say that it is not possible for someone or something to do something.

They are not able to run fast or throw a ball.

230 You can also use 'be unable to' to say that it is not possible for someone or something to do something.

I am having medical treatment and I'm unable to work.

Terry Wogan is unable to be with us.

231 You can also use 'be possible to' with 'it' as the subject to say that something is possible. You usually use this expression to say that something is possible for people in general, rather than for an individual person.

It is possible to reach Tunheim on foot.

Is it possible to programme a computer to speak?

If you use 'be possible to' to say that something is possible for a particular person or group, you put 'for' and a noun group after 'possible'.

It is possible for us to measure his progress.

It's possible for each department to support new members.

You use 'be possible to' with a negative to say that something is not possible.

It is not possible to quantify the effect.

232 You can also use 'be impossible to' to say that something is not possible.

It is impossible to fix the exact moment in time when it happened.

It is impossible for a European to understand Tewdros.

233 To change the tense of 'be able to', 'be unable to', or 'be possible to', or 'be impossible to', you simply change the form of 'be' to an appropriate simple tense.

The doctor will be able to spend more time with the patient.

Their parents were unable to send them any money.

It was not possible to dismiss crowd behaviour as a contributing factor.

It was impossible for the husband to obey this order.

234 All modals except 'can' and 'could' can be used with these expressions.

A machine ought to be able to do this.

The United States would be unable to produce any wood.

It may be impossible to predict which way things will develop.

235 'Used to' can be used with 'be able to' and 'be possible to'.

You used to be able to go to the doctor for that.

It used to be possible to buy second-hand wigs.

For more information about 'used to' see paragraphs 258 to 262.

saying how likely something is 236 You can use 'have to' or 'have got to' instead of 'must' to indicate that you think the case, because of particular facts or something is circumstances.

'That looks about right.''It has to be.'

Money has got to be the reason.

237 You can use 'be going to' instead of 'will' to say that something certain to happen or be the case in the future.

The children are going to be fishermen of farmers.

Life is going to be a bit easier from now on.

238 You can use 'be bound to' to say emphatically that something is certain to happen in the future.

Marion's bound to be back soon.

It was bound to happen sooner or later.

They'd be bound to know if it was all right.

239 Instead of beginning a question with 'can' or 'could' when you are making a request, you can begin it with 'is' and the impersonal pronoun 'it'. After 'it', you put an expression such as 'all right' and either a 'to'-infinitive clause or an 'if'-clause.

Is it all right for him to come in and sit and read his paper?

Is it okay if we have lunch here?

240 You can use 'want' instead of 'would like' to give an instruction or make a request. 'Want' is more direct and less polite than 'would like'.

I want you to turn to the front of the atlas.

I want to know what you think about this.

I want to have this pellet taken out.

'Wanted' is also sometimes used. It is more polite than 'want'.

I wanted to ask. Mr Nicholson, what was the effect of that newsreel on you?

Good morning, I wanted to book a holiday in the South of France.

241 You can use 'be going to' instead of 'will' to state an intention.

I am going to talk to Boris.

I'm going to show you our little school.

242 You use 'intend to' to state a fairly strong intention.

I intend to go to Cannes for a month in August.

I don't intend to stay too long.

243 You use 'be determined to' or 'be resolved to' to indicate a very strong intention to do something. 'Be resolved to' is rather formal.

I'm determined to try.

She was resolved to marry a rich American.

244 You can use 'have to' or 'have got to' instead of 'must' to indicate that it is important that you do something.

I have to get home now.

It's something I have got to overcome.

245 You can use 'I am not' instead of 'I will not' to say firmly that you ate unwilling to do or accept something. 'I am not' is followed by a present participle.

I am not staying in this hospital.

I'm not having dirty rugs.

246 You can use 'refuse' instead of 'will not' when you are refusing to do something. 'Refuse' is followed by a 'to'-infinitive clause.

I refuse to list possible reasons.

I refuse to pay.

247 You can use 'unwilling' or 'reluctant' with a 'to'-infinitive clause to say that someone is not willing to do or accept something.

He is unwilling to answer the questions.

I am always reluctant to explain anything as an expression of national character.

You can use several adjectives with 'not' to say that someone is unwilling to do or accept something.

Exporters are not willing to supply goods on credit.

I'm not prepared to teach him anything.

Thompson is not keen to see history repeat itself too exactly.

indicating importance 248 You can use 'have to' or 'have got to' instead of 'must' to say that something is necessary or extremely important.

The pine tree has to produce pollen in gigantic quantities.

We have to look more closely at the record of their work together.

This has got to be put right.

You've got to be able to communicate.

249 'Need to' can also be used instead of 'must'.

We need to change the balance of power.

You do not need to worry.

250 You can also say that something is important or necessary by using a sentence beginning with the impersonal pronoun 'it', followed by 'is', an adjective such as 'important' or 'necessary', and a 'that'-clause.

It is important that you should know precisely what is going on.

It is essential that immediate action should be taken.

It is vital that babies travel in government-approved carriers.

'Important' and 'necessary' can also be followed by a 'to'-infinitive clause.

It's important to recognise what industry needs at this moment.

It is necessary to examine this claim before we proceed any further.

251 You can use 'had better' instead of 'should' or 'ought to' to say that something is the right or correct thing to do. You use 'had better' with 'I' or 'we' to indicate an intention. You use it with 'you' when you are giving advice or a warning.

I think I had better show this to my brother.

He decided that we had better meet.

You'd better go.

Semi-modals

252 'Dare', 'need', and 'used to' can be used as modals, or they can be used in other ways. When they are used as modals, they have some characteristics which other modals do not have. For these reasons, they are sometimes called semi-modals.

The use of 'dare' and 'need' as modals is explained in the following paragraphs 253 to 257.

The use of 'used to' as a modal is explained in paragraphs 258 to 262.

'dare' and 'need' 253 When 'dare' and 'need' are used as modals, they have the same   meaning as when they are followed by a 'to'-infinitive clause. However, they are normally used as modals only in negative sentences and in questions.

Nobody dare disturb him.

No parent dare treat their child analytically.

With his father, he need not fear.

How dare you speak to me like that?

Need you go so soon?

'Dare not' and 'need not' are often shortened to 'daren't' and 'needn't'.

I daren't ring Jeremy again.

We needn't worry about that.

254 Unlike other modals, 'dare' has some inflected forms which are occasionally used.

In the simple present tense, the third person singular form can be either 'dare' or 'dares'.

When it comes, she dare not express her feelings.

What nobody dares suggest is that women be told to stay at home.

In the simple past tense, either 'dare' or 'dared' can be used. 'Dare' is more formal than 'dared'.

He dare not take his eyes off his assailant.

He dared not show he was pleased.

'Need' is not inflected when it is used as a modal.

255 Normally, modals cannot be used with other modals. However 'dare' can be used with 'will', 'would, 'should', and 'might'.

No one will dare override what the towns decide.

I wouldn't dare go to Europe.

I should not dare dogmatize about a matter such as this.

256 Unlike other models, 'dare' can be used with the auxiliary verb 'do'.

We do not dare examine it.

Don't you ever dare come here again!

In ordinary speech, 'did not dare' and 'didn't dare' are much more common than 'dared not' or 'dare not'.

She did not dare leave the path.

I didn't dare speak or move.

We didn't dare say that many of us would prefer to go home.

257 Besides being used as modals, 'dare' and 'need' are used in other ways in which they are not followed by the base form of another verb, verbs can be followed by a 'to'-infinitive clause, and 'need' is a common transitive verb.

258 'Used to' has no inflected forms, and cannot be used with other modals.

She used to get quite cross with Lally.

these Westerns that used to do so well in Hollywood.

What did we used to call it?

However, 'used to' can be used with the auxiliary verb 'do'. This is explained in paragraphs 261 and 262.

'Used' is sometimes regarded as a modal, rather than 'used to'. 'Used' is then said to be followed by a 'to'-infinitive.

259 'Used to' is used to say that something happened regularly or existed in the past, although it no longer happens or exists.

'Used to' is similar to 'would' when it is used to describe repeated actions in the past. However, unlike 'would', 'used to' can also describe past states and situations.

I'm not quite as mad as I used to be.

Actresses used to be very reluctant to wear tight corsets.

The use of 'would' to talk about things which happened regularly in the past is dealt with in paragraph 115.

omitting the following verb group 260 'Used to' can be used on its own without a following verb group when it is clear from the context what the subject matter is.

People don't work as hard as they used to.

I don't feel British anymore. Not as much as I used to.

negatives 261 'Used to' is not common in negative structures.

In informal speech, people sometimes make negative statements by putting 'didn't' in front of 'used to'.

They didn't used to mind what we did.

However, many people consider this use to be incorrect.

Another way to form the negative is to put 'never' in front of 'used to'.

Where I was before, we never used to have posters on the walls.

Sometimes 'not' is put between 'used' and 'to'. This is a fairly formal use.

It used not to be taxable.

Some grammar books give a contracted form for the negative, 'usedn't to' or 'usen't to'. This is now rarely used, and is thought to be very old-fashioned.

questions 262 You normally form questions with 'used to' by putting 'did' in front of the subject, followed by 'used to'. 'Wh'-questions, are formed by putting the 'wh'-word at the beginning, followed by 'used to'.

Did you used to play with your trains?

What used to annoy you most about him?

You can form negative questions by putting 'didn't' in front of the subject and 'not' after it, followed by the subject and 'used to'.

Didn't they used to mind?

In more formal English, 'did' is put in front of the subject and 'not' after it, followed by 'used to'.

Did she not used to smile?