Informatics technology

INFORMATICS TECHNOLOGY

1. INFORMATICS TECHNOLOGY

From ancient times, people have always needed to count, measure things of their life. They also have needed tools and techniques to help them keep records accurately: tapes, slides, rules, sextants, weighting scales, clocks, etc.

The computer is the latest calculating and recording device in the mankind history. The amount of work they do is quick and reliable, as the speed of its work is measured in millions of operations per second. Computer is becoming smaller faster, cheaper, more reliable and easier to use. Nowadays it covers the human needs in business, education, health care, art, design, government and entertainment, being a general purpose machine, as it can operate over a few hours as a typewriter, desktop publishing studio, sound and video editor, accounts tracker, e-mail sender, internet browser. Computer responds to programs that are conceived to make it meet the needs of human by means of processing the input to obtain the output. Any information going into a computer is converted into numbers that are added together in various ways and combinations under the set of rules that is called software, one of the main components of the computer system; the other one is the hardware that includes all the physical units that make the computer work.

Computers fall into a number of different categories. One of the ends of the spectrum is the mainframe that matches the needs of big corporations as they run with no interruption, performing extremely complex calculations. The most well known are the personal computers (PC) that come into various shapes and sizes. The desktop is the most commonly used. It includes a system unit, a screen and a keyboard, as separate components. Business people can use now a laptop or a notebook computer. They have been provided lately with liquid crystal displays (LDC) or touch screen. Medium size enterprises can use nowadays minicomputers that offer greater processing power, storage capacity and reliability. Network computers or (servers) are the big computers meant to administer, support and protect the security the computer network.

The system unit is the essential component of the computer. It houses the processor, various memories, a fan which is designed to keep the whole unit cool. Nowadays the system unit is designed to stand vertically, on the floor tower, or it is built underneath the keyboard in a laptop.

The two main types of memory are the Random Access Memory (RAM) used to carry out given tasks, often called working storage. The main memory holds the list of instructions currently working on, the input information on which it is working and the interim output. The measure units for its capacity are the byte. One byte consists of eight bits. Additional memory can improve the performance of the computer. The other type of the memory is the Read-Only-Memory (ROM) where the PC stores its low level programs, particularly the instructions necessary to start the computer. The main device for storing information is the hard disc that records it magnetically and keeps it until it is changed or deleted. It uses a read/write head that detects the polarization of particles on the disc revolving at a constant high speed, getting or retrieving information onto it.

Documents can be transferred from one computer to another by using a diskette, the so-called floppy-disk. But nowadays, software is most often supplied on CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read-Only Memory) that provide more storage capacity, as programs have added functionality because they may include graphic and other multimedia elements. A newer type of CD-ROM is the CD-Rewritable disk, or CD-RW that can be used for writing data to them more than once. But CD-ROMs are now being overtaken by DVDs (Digital Versatile Disk) which look similar, but have a great more storage capacity. The information is encoded on the CDs by using a CD Writer and detected by a laser beam. The zip-drive is another kind of high capacity removable disk that uses either magnetic technology or laser technology. All of them are often referred to as 'backing storage' or 'secondary storage'.

Most of the computer systems use three essential peripherals: the key board and the mouse (used for input) and the screen (used for output). The keyboard makes the information and instruction enter the computer. The programs give continuous feed-back on their progress and display their output on the screen or the monitor that is the visual display unit (VDU). The programs are also represented on the screen as Graphical User Interface (GUI) agooeyñ that includes files, functions as pictures and also a pointer indicating the intention of the user and making the program responding accordingly. The mouse represents it as an external device, converting its moves into the moves of the pointer. The one click or double click moves make the operation of the computer easy. But besides the mouse, there are also other, like:

trackball that is an upside-down mouse used for limited desk space

joystick and games controller are also similar to the external mouse, but used only for games and simulations

touch pads built in device to the keyboard of laptops for moving the pointer either as a miniature joystick or a pressure-sensitive touch pad that transmits the finger movement

graphic tablets are used for design applications and feel the movement of a plastic pen across them  

Other essential peripheral devices are also normal parts of the computer system: printers, modems, loud speakers, scanners, digital cameras, microphones are increasingly used by the new technology.

Laser printers, inkjet printers, impact printers use slightly different techniques for printing or making marks on the paper. They are characterized by the speed of output, colour and cost of consumables.

The modem is a device used to connect computers to the telephone network for using the internet or for sending faxes.

Any kind of data that can be converted into numbers can be processed by computer: music, pictures, animated drawings, video, speech. The multimedia applications have grown up due to this ability, often called multimedia computer. These applications need also specialized peripherals:

scanner used to copy photos, drawings, texts into a computer through a specialized program

digital camera records images digitally in a memory, not a photographic film. The images are transferred to a computer and printed out using graphic software to edit, archive or e-mail them.

Loud speakers are standard peripheral equipment used to play music and any sounds

Sound cards are used to control audio output and to upgrade its quality

Microphones used  for the control of application by speech commands

Software is the generic sets of instructions gathered in system software and application software. The former refers to the control and management of the devices, files and storage; the latter is concerned with various professional areas, entertainment, and education.

The programs depend on the operating system (OS) that controls the hardware, the timing of sequences and manages the access data to ensure security and integrity. When adding a new piece of hardware to the system, a driver has also to be loaded to make the OS control the hardware, i.e. recognize input from the keyboard and mouse, send output to the screen, communicate with printers and other peripherals, and keep track of files. The operating system is usually presented through a graphical user interface (GUI) that represents the hardware of the computer: disks, printers, application programs, data files represented by symbols of icons that can be made operational by moving the pointer through a mouse click

The application programs enable different programs work: word processing, spreadsheets, data base management system, electronic mail or even pre-loaded applications: Netscape Navigator, Microsoft Explorer. There are also highly specialized and sophisticated applications used according to particular needs.

Licensed software gives the holder the right to run it and make copies of the software only for backup purposes. The illegal piracy deprives the individual developers, companies of their rightful income. Only freeware can be distributed without charge on disks given away with magazines or downloaded from internet. Shareware is also widely distributed in much the same way as freeware, but if you decide to use it, you are supposed to send a licence fee to the developer, otherwise it will not function but only a typical period of time of 30 days.

When the software produces incorrect or unexpected results, it has a bug that can range from minor to major ones. When the computer 'freezes' it ceases to function, i.e. refuses any input and won't produce any output, it 'hangs'. A bug can make a whole system crash, so the computer should be turned off the power for a minute, or to press the Reset button on the system unit, as a last resort, in order not to lose any work done since the last saved application.

Data are hold in files that can be organized into directories or folders. They are given names in order to be recognized and operated when needed. Data can be lost, corrupted, damaged or abused accidentally or deliberately. The users can protect them by using a system of password or keeping backup copies of data files, on diskettes or other removable mediums. The operated data should also be saved at regular intervals on the volatile working storage RAM.

Viruses are poisonous programs that vary from minor irritation (messages displayed on the screen), inconveniences (files can be damaged), or to total disaster (damage of the hardware rendered unusable). Virus spreading can be avoided by not opening the e-mail attachments, checking diskettes, hard drives or CDs and by using virus-scanning software that should be the very latest.

Network

Computers can operate on their own (stand-alone computers) or they can be connected in networks:

sharing hardware: two or more computers are connected through hardware resources: printers, modems, scanners, platters

file sharing: information needed by several users is stored on a single, powerful, permanently switched-on computer called a file server, and then shared on specific computers.

E-mail: Computer networks make possible e-communication, i.e. electronic mail; messages can be exchanged between users of the computers that are connected to a common network.

Data-exchange network: makes possible co-operative work in a work group

LAN (Local Area Network) connects computers located in a small area, such as an office, a building, or a group of adjoining buildings

WAN (Wide Area Network connects computers over a large area, usually across international boundaries. They can be restricted to a private access, operated by a transnational company or government agency or it can have public access such as the internet. The wide area network uses all technologies of the telephone network: satellites, microwaves, optic fibers converting the 'analogue' voice signal into the 'digital' computer signal through a 'modem'. The modem is a device which is usually built-in the computer communication. . An alternative to using modems is ISDN (Integrated Service Digital Network) that is cable which is designed to carry digital signals. It is used more and more for frequent high-volume

Computer users connected to the Internet can exchange messages by e-mail. They need e-mail software, a unique address and a password to prove entitlement to collect the message. E-mail has largely taken over from the telephone technology used to send and receive written messages. The fax machine scans printed information and encodes it so that it could be sent down the telephone line and decoded by the fax machine of the recipient that provides a print out.

Internet is a wide-world network of interconnected networks. It is used to e-mailing and to provide access to the information stored on computers all around the world. The users governments, officials, universities, companies, voluntary organizations, and private individuals can use this huge resource-opportunity for research, news, entertainment, education, information, current affairs, shopping, arts, etc

The term world wide web is used to describe documents made available over the Internet which are in a particular graphic format. The documents can be linked together, irrespective of where they are physically located in the world. Their links, named hyperlinks, enable users to pursue a research topic from the general to the specific, from detail to 'big picture', from graphic to text, from text to sound. The documents built using the hyperlinks are called 'hypertext' or 'hypermedia' if sound, graphic or video are involved.

The documents published on the internet can be contacted through a browser, i.e. a program that displays the web pages following links from one web page to another. The search engine is also a program that trawls the internet looking for documents that contain information of interest to the users.

E-Commerce

International business markets have been developing lately using largely the advantages of Internet. Advertisement, placing orders, delivery of products ordered, rendering services, ticketing have become cheaper and cheaper due to the Internet service. Comparing prices from different suppliers, buying directly from the manufacturer or the supplier anywhere in the world, pricing different offers and opportunities, searching maps, checking event listings, hiring cars, booking meals in a favourite restaurant, are the advantages of using the Internets shopping nowadays.

GLOSSARY

Acceptance the act of placing the word 'accepted' across the face of a draft, followed by the date and signature of the acceptor

Acceptance draft - A timer draft which has been accepted, thereby bearing the unconditional obligation of the party upon which it is drawn to pay the draft at maturity

Accepting bank - the bank upon which the draft is drawn and which 'accepts' the draft (see acceptance)

Advising bank a bank, usually in the Beneficiary's country which informs the beneficiary that another bank has issued a Letter of Credit in its favour

Air Waybill a non negotiable contract of carriage for air transportation between an air carrier and a shipper, or an air carrier and an air freight forwarder

Amendment any change to the terms and conditions of a Letter of Credit

Applicant the party that arranges for a Letter of Credit to be issued, typically the buyer in a commercial transaction or the borrower in a financial transaction

- an individual applying for a job

'at sight' it indicates thet an instrument is to be paid upon the bank's determination that the documents comply with the terms and conditions of a payment document

beneficiary the person in whose favour a Letter of Credit is issued , typically the seller in a commercial transaction, or the creditor in a financial transaction

Bill of Exchange see draft

Bill of Lading _ a document, generally issued by a carrier to a shipper that serves a threefold purpose: 1 receipt for the goods delivered to the carrier for shipment; 2. a contract of carriage of the goods from the place of receipt to the place of delivery listed in the bill of lading; and 3. evidence of title to the goods

Charter party the person chartering a vessel or part of its freight space for a particular trip or period of time

Collection a method of payment for goods. The act of handling documents on instructions received, by banks, in order to obtain acceptance or, as the case may be, payment from drawee

Commercial invoice A bill provided by the seller, addressed to the buyer, giving a description of the goods or services, price, charges, etc

Commercial Letter of Credit _ a letter of credit by which payment is made available to the beneficiary against presentation of a draft and stipulated shipping documents

Consignment - a method of payment for goods where the title to goods remain with the supplier/manufacturer until they are sold by an agent or third party

Demurrage a charge for exceeding the free time allowed for loading or unloading at a pier or freight terminal

Dishonor refusal on the part of the drawee to accept a draft or to pay it when due

Documents against Acceptance (D/A) instructions given by a seller to its bank that the documents attached to a draft for collection are deliverable to the drawee only against the drawee's payment of the draft

Documents Against Payment (D/P) instructions given by a seller ti its bank that the documents attached to a draft for collection are deliverable to the drawee only against the drawee's payment of the draft

draft a signed order or Bill of Exchange by one party, the drawer addressed to another, the drawee, directing the drawee to pay a specified sum of money to the order of a third person, the payee

drawee The party on whom a draft is drawn, and from which payment is expected

drawer one who signs or 'draws' a draft (usually the seller, or Beneficiary of a Letter of credit)

endorsement a signature on the back of a negotiable instrument made primarily for the purpose of transferring the rights of the holder to another person

evergreen clause a provision of a letter of Credit which allows the expiration date to automatically extend for an additional period of time without requiring an amendment (also known as an Automated Extension Clause)

Foreign exchange risk the risk resulting from purchasing or selling goods at a price denominated in a currency other than that of the purchaser or seller

Incoterms 1990 set of definitions published by the ICC from time to time for the interpretation of commonly used trade terms which define the obligations of the parties and when the risk of loss passes from one party to another

Insurance certificate written evidence that insurance coverage is in force

Insurance policy a contract of indemnity by which an insurance company, in return for payment of a premium, guarantees compensation of the amount of any loss arising from an insured casualty

International Chamber of Commerce the body which published the Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits, the Uniform Rules for Collections, the Uniform Rules for Reimbursements, Incoterms 1990 and other works commonly used in international trade

Irrevocable a term placed on an instrument to indicate that it cannot be cancelled or amended or terminated prior to its expiration date without the consent of each party

Letter of Credit an instrument issued by a bank in favor of a Beneficiary by which the bank substitutes its own creditworthiness for that of the Applicant by promising to honor (pay if the documents specified in the Letter of Credit are timely presented

Maturity Date the date upon which a draft or acceptance becomes due for payment

Multimodal transport transportation of gods by more than one mode, for instance, truck, steamship and rail

Open account a method of payment for goods and services; a seller ships merchandise along with the related documents to a buyer with no guarantee of payment. The buyer then makes on its account in the manner specified in the invoice.

Negotiable a term placed on an instrument (draft or other document) which allows title to be transferred from owner to owner by endorsement, usually evidenced by the use of the words 'order of' or 'to order'

Negotiation the act of purchasing complying documents under a Letter of Credit usually with recourse to the Beneficiary

Payee the party to whom a draft or other negotiable instrument is made payable

Port of discharge the port at which merchandise is offloaded from the vessel

Port of entry the port at which goods are admitted into the receiving country

Port of loading the port at which merchandise is loaded aboard a vessel

Presentation the delivery of one or more documents to the issuing Bank or Nominated bank for payment, acceptance or negotiation under a Letter of credit

Promissory note a written promise committing the signer to pay a sum to another art a future date, usually with interest

Recourse a term used on a negotiable instrument to indicate that the drawer or endorser is liable to subsequent holders for payment at maturity

Red Clause a provision in a Letter of Credit that provides for the advance of funds to the Beneficiary prior to the presentation of the shipping documents

Revocable- a term permitting modification or cancellation of a letter of Credit without the Beneficiary's prior agreement

Tenor the length of time a draft (bill of exchange) is drawn to run before presentation for payment

Terms, payment the terms under which a seller and a buyer agree that the exchange of goods for payment shall take place. Open account cash in advance, Letter of Credit, consignment and documentary collection are examples of common payment terms

Terms, shipping stating in abbreviation form where the seller's responsibility for the merchandise ends and where the buyer's begins. Some examples of common shipping terms are F.O.B., F.A.S., C.I.F. C&F., and Ex-ship.

with recourse a term used on an instrument or endorsement to indicate that the drawer or endorser is liable to subsequent holders form payment at maturity

Without recourse a term use on an instrument or endorsement to indicate that the drawer or endorser is not liable to subsequent holders for payment at maturity

'x Days date' a term used on a draft, bill of exchange, or note. If an exporter draws a draft and stipulates payment '60days date', the draft is due 60 days after the date on which it was drawn.There fore, the maturitz is fixed and is not dependent on the date of acceptance by the drawee

'x Days Sight' a term used on a draft, bill of exchange, or note to indicate that payment is due on a stipulated number of days after the draft has been sighted (accepted) by the drawee

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Mayhew, Alan: Recreating Europe. The European Union's Policy towards Central and Eastern Europe Cambridge University Press, 1998

2. Shaw, Malcolm: International Law, Cambridge University Press, 2001

3. Turcu, Fulvia: Engleza pentru afaceri, Pecomex, 1997