Coordination - Linking clauses, Linking verbs

Coordination

137 When you say or write something, you often want to put together two or more clauses of equal importance. You do this by using a coordinating conjunction.

Anna had to go into town and she wanted to go to Bride Street.

I asked if I could borrow her bicycle but she refused.

He had been only a baby then, yet he had not been afraid.

Here is a list of the most common coordinating conjunctions:

Coordinating conjunctions are also used to link words and word groups.

The boys shouted and rushed forward.

domestic animals such as dogs and cats.

Her manner was hurried yet painstakingly courteous.

He toppled slowly but inexorably off the fence.

Sometimes coordinating conjunctions can be used together.

It is a simple game and yet interesting enough to be played with skill.

Eric moaned something and then lay still.

The linking of clauses, words, or word groups using coordinating conjunctions is called coordination. Coordinating conjunctions are sometimes called coordinators.

138 The different uses of coordinating conjunctions are explained in the following paragraphs:

Ways of emphasizing coordinating conjunctions are described in paragraphs 182 to 18

The linking of more than two clauses, words, or word groups is explained in paragraphs 188 to 189.

Linking clauses

139 You can use a  coordinating conjunction to link clauses which have the same subject, or clauses which have different subjects.

140 When you link clauses which have the same subject, you do not always need to repeat the subject in the second clause.

If the conjunction is 'and', 'or', or 'then', you do not usually repeat the subject.

He took her hands from her eyes and led her towards the house.

It's a long time since you've bought them a drink or talked to them.

When she recognized Morris she went pale, then blushed.

If the conjunction is 'but', 'so', or 'yet', it is usual to repeat the subject.

I try and see it their way, but I can't.

I had no car, so I hired one for the journey.

He lost the fight, yet somehow he emerged with his dignity enhanced.

When you link clauses which have different subjects but which have some common elements, you do not need to repeat all the elements in the second clause.

For example, instead of saying 'Some of them went to one pub and some of them went to the other pub', you can say 'Some of them went to one pub and some to the other'.

One soldier was killed and another wounded.

One of its sides was painted black and the other white.

141 A coordinating conjunction can be used simply to link clauses, or it can be used in addition to indicate a relationship between them. These uses are explained in the following paragraphs.

142 If you simply want to mention two related facts, you use 'and'.

He has been successful in Hollywood and has worked with such directors as Norman Jewison and Richard Attenborough.

The company will not be split up and will continue to operate from Belfast.

He gained a B in English and now plans to study Spanish.

You also use 'and' to indicate that two things happened or are happening at the same time.

I sat and watched him.

Other uses of 'and' are explained in the following paragraphs.

sequence 143 If you use 'and' between two clauses which describe events, you are indicating that the event described in the first clause happens or happened before the event described in the second one.

She was born in Budapest and raised in Manhattan.

He opened the car door and got out.

'Then' can be used in the same way, but it is less common.

He held his hand to direct the water in a spray across his face, then dipped his head and drank.

two negative facts 144 When you want to link two negative clauses, you usually use 'and'.

When his appointment ceased he did not return to his home country and he has not been there since 1979.

However, you can use 'or' when the clauses have the same subject and the same auxiliaries. In the second clauses, you omit the subject, the auxiliaries, and 'not'.

For example, instead of saying 'She doesn't drink and she doesn't smoke', you can say 'She doesn't drink or smoke'.

We will not pay ransom or do deals for hostages.

He didn't yell or scream.

You can also link negative clauses by using 'and neither', 'and nor', or 'nor'. You put 'be' or the auxiliary at the beginning of the second clause, in front of the subject.

For example, instead of saying 'My sister doesn't like him and I don' like him', you can say 'My sister doesn't like him, and neither do I'.

I was not happy and neither were they.

I could not afford to eat in restaurants and nor could anyone else I knew.

Clearly these people are not insane, nor are they fools.

'But neither' and 'but nor' can also be used.

This isn't a dazzling record, but neither is it rubbish.

Institutions of learning are not taxed but nor are they much respected.

When you use 'and' to link two negative statements, you can put 'either' after the second statement.

I hadn't been to a pop festival and Mike hadn't either.

Electricity didn't come into Blackhail Farm until recently and they hadn't any water either.

For emphasis, you can join two negative clauses by using 'neither' and 'nor'. This use is explained in paragraph 18

contrast 145 When you are adding a contrasting fact, you usually use 'but'.

I'm only 63, but I feel a hundred.

It costs quite a lot but it's worth it.

I've had a very pleasant two years, but I can't wait to get back to the City.

Yes, we will be using motor racing to promote our products, but we will also be using it to promote good, safe and sober driving.

If you want to add a fact which contrasts strongly with what you have just said, you use 'yet' or 'and yet'.

Everything around him was blown to pieces, yet the minister escaped without a scratch.

I want to leave, and yet I feel obliged to stay.

You usually put a comma in front or 'but', 'yet', or 'and yet'.

146 When you want to mention two alternatives, you use 'or'.

I could kill a rabbit with my bare hands or shoot a bullock without the least bother.

We can try to increase the intelligence of our domestic animals or evolve wholly new ones with much higher intelligence.

Was the mine laid in the harbour or did it drift in from the Gulf of Mexico?

147 When you are giving advice, you sometimes want to tell someone what will happen if they do a particular thing. You do this by using an imperative clause, followed by 'and' and a clause containing a verb in a future tense.

For example, instead of saying 'If you go by train, you'll get there quicker', you can say 'Go by train and you'll get there quicker'.

Do as you are told and you'll be alright.

You put the out here and you'll lose your job tomorrow.

When you are giving advice, a warning, or an order, you sometimes want to tell someone what will happen if they do not do what you say. You do this by using an imperative clause, followed by 'or' and a clause containing a verb in a future tense.

For example, instead of saying 'Go away! If you don't go away, I scream', you can say 'Go away, or I'll scream'.

Hurry up, or you'll be late for school.

So don't go prying into my affairs or you'll get hurt.

148 In writing, you can sometimes begin a sentence with coordinating conjunction. You do this to make the sentence seem more dramatic or forceful. Some people think this use is incorrect.

The villagers had become accustomed to minor earth tremors. But everyone knew that something unusual had woken them on Monday.

Do you think there is something wrong with her? Or do you just not like her?

Send him ahead to warn Eric. And close that door.

149 Sometimes, in writing, two clauses can be made into one sentence without a coordinating conjunction being used. Instead, a semicolon or a dash is put between the clauses. This is a way of expressing two statements in one sentence when no particular coordinating conjunction seems appropriate.

The neighbours drove by; they couldn't bear to look.

When we embraced I couldn't say thank you-those words were far too small for someone who had risked her life to save mine.

150 Coordinating conjunctions can be used to link non-finite clauses.

'To'-infinitive clauses can be linked by 'and' or 'or'.

We need to persuade more drivers to leave their cars at home and to use the train instead.

She may decide to remarry or to live with one of her sisters.

Sometimes the second 'to' is omitted.

Soldiers tried to clear road obstructions and remove flags and graffiti.

When the second clause is negative, you can use 'not' instead of 'and not'.

I am paid to treat people, not to interrogate them.

Clauses beginning with a participle can be linked by 'and' or 'or

The mother lay on the bed gazing at the child and smiling at him.

You may be more comfortable wearing a cotton dress or shirt or sleeping under a cotton blanket.

However, if the first clause begins with 'standing', 'sitting', or 'lying', you do not usually put 'and' between the clauses.

Inside were two lines of old people sitting facing each other.

151 For information on how to coordinate more than two clauses, see paragraph 18

Linking verbs

152 When you are talking about two actions performed by the same person, thing, or group, you can use a coordinating conjunction to link two verbs.

intransitive verbs 153 Coordinating conjunctions can be used to link intransitive verbs.

Mostly, they just sat and chatted.

We both shrugged and laughed.

transitive verbs 154 When you are describing actions involving the same subject and object, you can link two transitive verbs. You put the object after the second verb only.

For example, instead of saying 'He swept the floor and polished the floor', you say 'He swept and polished the floor'.

Wash and trim the leeks.

Similarly, instead of saying 'They walk to work or cycle to work', you can say 'They walk or cycle to work'.

I shouted and hooted at them.

omitting the auxiliary 155 When you are linking verb groups which contain the same auxiliary, you do not need to repeat the auxiliary in the second clause.

Someone may be killed or seriously injured.

a solid form of the drug that is smoked, not inhaled.

We are blessed by having known and loved a man of such goodness and wisdom.

emphasizing repetition or duration 156 If you want to say that someone does something repeatedly or for a long time, you can use 'and' to link two identical verbs.

They laughed and laughed.

Isaacs didn't give up. He tried and tried, but he kept getting unhelpful replies.

157 In informal speech, 'and' is often used between 'try' and another verb. For example, someone might say 'I'll try and get a newspaper'. However, this means the same as 'I'll try to get a newspaper', and it refers to one action, not two.

For more information about this use see paragraph 3.201.

158 For information on how to coordinate more than two verbs, see paragraph 18

Linking noun groups

159 When you are talking about two people or things, you can use a coordinating conjunction to fink two noun groups.

160 In simple statements about two people or things, you use 'and'.

There were men and women working in the fields.

I'll give you a nice cup of tea and a ginger biscuit.

a friendship between a boy and a girl.

Instead of 'and not', you use 'not' with a comma in front of it.

Each finger ends with a sharp claw, not a flat blunt nail.

If both people or things are the object of the verb in a negative sentence, you use 'or'.

We didn't play cricket or football.

161 When you are giving alternatives, you use 'or'.

Serve fruit or cheese afterwards.

a letter saying that a brother or sister has a new bike.

162 When you refer to two people of things using 'and' or 'or', you usually repeat the determiner.

He was holding a suitcase and a birdcage.

However, if the people or things are closely associated in some way, you do not need to repeat the determiner.

My mother and father worked hard.

The jacket and skirt were skilfully designed.

a boy in a jacket and tie.

Sometimes both determiners are omitted.

Mother and daughter stared at each other.

All this had of course been discussed between husband and wife.

The legal position for both worker and employer is now as fair as the law can make it.

163 You can sometimes use noun groups linked by 'and' to refer to just one person or thing.

He's a racist and a sexist.

the novelist and playwright, Somerset Maugham.

164 When you are linking two nouns, an adjective in front of the first noun is normally interpreted as applying to both nouns.

the young men and women of England.

a house crammed with beautiful furniture and china.

verb agreement 165 When the subject of a clause consists of two or more nouns linked by 'and', you use a plural verb.

My mother and father are ill.

Time, money anti effort were needed.

However, you do not use a plural verb if the nouns refer to the same person or thing.

The writer and filmmaker Masanori Hata disagrees.

You also do not use a plural verb with uncount nouns preceded by 'all', or with singular count nouns preceded by 'each' or 'every'.

All this effort and sacrifice has not helped to alleviate poverty.

It became necessary to involve every man, woman and child who was willing to help.

When you link two or more nouns with 'or', you use a plural verb after plural nouns, and a singular verb after singular nouns or uncount nouns.

One generation's problems of successes are passed to the next.

Can you say 'No' to a friend or relative who wants to insist?

linking pronouns 166 You can put 'and', 'or', or 'not' between a pronoun and a noun group, or between two pronouns.

Howard and I are planning a party.

She and I have a very good relationship.

If you or your husband have paid enough contributions, you are entitled to a grant.

I felt that the new plant should bear his name, for he, not I, had done the work.

When you say something about yourself and someone else, you usually put the pronoun or noun group referring to the other person first, and the pronoun referring to yourself second.

My sister and I lived totally different kinds of lives.

You and I must have a talk together.

a difference of opinion between John and me.

The first people to hear were the Foreign Secretary and myself.

167 For information on how to coordinate more than two noun groups, see paragraph 18

Linking adjectives and adverbs

168 When you use two adjectives to describe someone or something, you sometimes put a conjunction between them. This is explained in the following paragraphs 169 to 17 Conjunctions are also sometimes placed between adverbs. This is explained in paragraph 17

qualitative adjectives 169 When you put two qualitative adjectives in front of a noun, you put 'and' or a comma between the adjectives.

an intelligent and ambitious woman.

an intelligent, generous man.

colour adjectives 170 When you put two colour adjectives in front of a noun, you put 'and' between them.

a black and white swimming suit.

171 When you put two classifying adjectives in front of a noun, you have to decide whether the adjectives relate to the same system of classification or to different systems.

For example, 'geographical' and 'geological' relate to the same system; 'British' and 'industrial' relate to different systems.

When you put two classifying adjectives in front of a noun, and the adjectives relate to the same classifying system, you put 'and' between them.

a social and educational dilemma.

When the adjectives relate to different classifying systems, you do not put 'and' between them, or use a comma.

the French classical pianists Katia and Marietta Labeque.

medieval Muslim philosophers.

a square wooden table.

American agricultural exports.

172 When you put two adjectives of different kinds in front of a noun, for example a qualitative adjective and a classifying adjective, you do not put 'and' between them or use a comma.

a large circular pool of water.

a beautiful pink suit.

rapid technological advance.

173 When you put two adjectives in front of a plural noun in order to talk about two groups of things which have different or opposite qualities, you put 'and' between the adjectives.

Both large and small firms deal with each other regularly.

European and American traditions.

174 When you use two adjectives after a link verb, you put 'and' between them.

Mrs Scott's house was large and imposing.

The room was large and square.

On this point we can be clear and categorical.

175 You can also put 'but', 'yet', or 'or' between adjectives.

When you link contrasting adjectives, you put 'but' or 'yet' between them.

a small but comfortable hotel.

We are poor but happy.

a firm yet gentle hand.

When you want to say that either of two adjectives could apply, or to ask which adjective applies, you use 'or'.

You can use red or black paint.

Call me if you feel lonely or depressed.

Is it good or bad?

If you want to say that neither of two adjectives applies, you use 'or' in a negative sentence.

He was not exciting or good-looking.

Another way of saying that neither of two adjectives applies is to put 'neither' in front of the first one and 'nor' in front of the second one.

The Englishman was neither gratified nor displeased.

The older men were careful to be neither too soft nor too loud in their reciting.

linking adverbs 176 You can put 'and' between adverbs.

Mary was breathing quietly and evenly.

We have to keep airports running smoothly and efficiently.

They walk up and down, smiling.

When you link contrasting adverbs, you put 'but' or 'yet' between them.

Quickly but silently she darted out of the cell.

If you want to say that neither of two adverbs applies, you use a negative sentence with 'or' between the adverbs, or you put 'neither' in front of the first adverb and 'nor' in front of the second one.

They will not come down very quickly or very far.

The story ends neither happily nor unhappily.

177 For information on how to coordinate more than two adjectives, see paragraph 189.

Linking other word groups

178 Coordinating conjunctions can also be used to link prepositions, prepositional phrases, modifiers, and determiners.

linking prepositions 179 You can use 'and' to link prepositions which apply to the same noun group.

We see them on their way to and from school.

The group has called on the Government to investigate whether human rights were violated during and after the riots.

linking prepositional phrases 180 You can use 'and' to link prepositional phrases when you are describing similar actions, situations, or things.

They walked across the gravel and down the drive.

They had crumbs around their mouths and under their chins.

However, if the phases describe the same action, situation, or thing, you do not put 'and' between them.

Her husband was hit over the head with a mallet.

They walked down the drive between the chestnut trees.

a man of about forty with glaring defiant eyes.

linking modifiers and determiners 181 You can use 'and' or 'or' to link modifiers.

the largest electrical equipment and electronics manufacturer in Germany.

This would not apply to a coal or oil supplier.

You can use 'or' to link the determiners 'his' and 'her'.

Your child's school will play important part in shaping the rest of his or her life.

Emphasizing coordinating conjunctions

182 When you are using coordinating conjunctions, you sometimes want to emphasize that what you are saying applies to both the word groups linked by the conjunction. You usually do this by putting a word such as 'both' or 'neither' in front of the first word group.

183 When you are using 'and', the most common way of emphasizing that what you are saying applies to two word groups is to put 'both' in front of the first word group.

By that time both Robin and Drew were overseas.

They feel both anxiety and joy.

These headlines both mystified and infuriated him.

Investment continues both at home and abroad.

Because the medicine is both expensive and in great demand, huge profits can be made.

Another way is to use 'and also' instead of 'and'.

Wilkins drove racing cars himself and also raced powerboats.

The job of the library is to get books to people and also to get information to them.

184 For stronger emphasis, you can put 'not only' or 'not just' in front of the first word group, and 'but' or 'but also' between the two groups.

The effortless freshness and spontaneity of his singing put him into the front rank of popular singers, not only of the present time but of any time.

Employers have got to think more seriously not only of attracting staff, but of keeping them.

Professor Kleber suggests that law enforcement activities should be directed not just at drug importers and main suppliers, but also at local dealers.

185 When you are using 'or', the most common way of emphasizing that what you are saying applies to two word groups is to put 'either' in front of the first word group.

Sentences can be either true or false.

You can either buy a special insecticide or get help from an expert.

Either Margaret or John should certainty have come to see me by now.

Either we raise money from outside or we face unpalatable options such as closing part of the museum.

When you are linking clauses in this way, you can use 'or else', instead of 'for'.

If you can't iron them at once, either roll up the sheets while they are damp or else damp them before you iron them.

186 If you want to emphasize that a negative statement applies to two word groups, you put 'nether' in front of the first group and 'nor' in front of the second group.

For example, instead of saying 'The girl did not speak or look up', you say 'The girl neither spoke nor looked up'.

The thought neither distressed nor delighted her.

She had neither received nor read the letter.

Neither Margaret nor John was there.

Note that you use a singular verb after singular noun groups and a plural verb after plural noun groups.

Neither Binta nor anyone else was going to speak.

Neither city councils nor wealthy manufacturers have much need of painters or sculptors.

187 Sometimes you want to draw attention to a clause or word group by contrasting it with something different. One way to do this is to link the two elements by putting 'but' between them. You put 'not' in front of the first element.

We wept, not because we were frightened but because we were so dirty.

I felt not jubilation but sadness.

The upright chairs were not polished but painted.

Linking more than two clauses or word groups

188 You can link more than two clauses, words, or word groups using 'and' or 'or'. Usually you use the conjunction only once, putting it between the last two clauses, words, or word groups. After each of the others you put a comma.

Haggarty marched him to the door, literally threw him out and returned.

courses in accountancy, science, maths or engineering.

Some people also put a comma in front of the conjunction. We do this in this grammar, for the sake of clarity.

Mrs Roberts cooked, cleaned, mended, and went to meetings of the sewing club.

In informal speech, people sometimes put 'and' or 'or' between each pair of clauses, words, or word groups. Occasionally, you do this in writing when you want to emphasize that all the statements you are making are true.

Mrs Barnett has a gate and it's not locked and that's how they get out.

linking adjectives 189 There are special rules for linking more than two adjectives.

When you put more than two qualitative adjectives in front of a noun, you have to decide whether the adjectives relate to the same system of classification or to different systems. (This is explained in paragraph 171.)

If the classifying adjectives relate to the same system, you put 'and' between the last two adjectives and a comma after each of the others.

the country's social, economic and political crisis.

If the classifying adjectives relate to different systems of classification, you do not put anything between them.

a little white wooden house.

When you put more than two adjectives after a link verb, you put 'and' between the last two adjectives and a comma after each of the others.

He was big, dark and morose.

We felt hot, tired and thirsty.