Relative clauses - Using relative pronouns in defining clauses

Relative clauses

When you mention someone or something in a sentence, you often want to give further information about them. One way to do this is to use a relative clause.

You put relative clause immediately after the noun which refers to the person, thing, or group you are talking about.

The man who came into the room was small and slender.

Opposite is St. Paul's Church, where you can hear some lovely music.

Relative clauses have a similar function to adjectives, and they are sometimes called adjectival clauses.

Nominal relative clauses, which have a similar function to noun groups, are explained in paragraphs 112 to 11

84 Many relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun. The relative pronoun usually acts the subject or object of the verb in the relative clause.

He is the only person who might be able to help.

Most of the mothers have a job, which they take both for the money and the company.

Here is a list of the most common relative pronouns:

Relative pronouns do not have masculine, feminine, or plural forms. The same pronoun can be used to refer to a man, a woman, or a group of people.

She didn't recognize the man who had spoken.

I met a girl who knew Mrs Townsend.

There are many people who find this intolerable.

Some relative clauses do not have a relative pronoun.

Nearly all the people I used to know have gone.

This is explained in paragraphs 90, 91, and 9

kinds of relative clause 85 There are two kinds of relative clause.

Defining relative clauses explain which person or thing you are talking about. For example, if you say 'I met the woman', it might not be clear who you mean, so you might say, 'I met the woman who lives next door'. In this sentence, 'who lives next door' is a defining relative clause.

Shortly after the shooting, the man who had done it was arrested.

Mooresville is the town that John Dillinger came from.

Defining relative clauses are a kind of qualifier. Qualifiers are explained in paragraphs 2.289 to 2.320.

Non-defining relative clauses give further information which is not needed to identify the person, thing, or group you are talking about. For example, if you say 'I saw Kylie Minogue', it is clear who you mean. But you might want to add more information about Kylie Minogue, so you might say, for example, 'I saw Kylie Minogue, who was staying at the hotel opposite'. In this sentence, 'who was staying at the hotel opposite' is a non-defining relative clause.

He was waving to the girl, who was running along the platform.

He walked down to Broadway, the main street of the town, which ran parallel to the river.

Non-defining relative clauses are used mainly in writing rather than speech.

punctuation 86 A non-defining relative clause usually has a comma in front of it and a comma after it, unless it is at the end of a sentence, in which case you just put a full stop. Dashes are sometimes used instead of commas.

Sir Denis, who is 78, has let it be known that much of his collection is to be left to the nation.

You never put a comma or a dash in front of a defining relative clause.

The woman who owns this cabin will come back in the autumn.

use after pronouns 87 Defining relative clauses can be used after some pronouns.

They are used after indefinite pronouns such as 'someone', 'anyone', and 'everything'.

This is something I'm very proud of.

In theory anyone who lives or works in the area may be at risk.

Karen Blixen was being feted by everyone who knew her work.

They are sometimes used after 'some', 'many', 'much', 'several', 'all', or 'those'.

Like many who met him in those days I was soon charmed.

the feelings of those who have suffered from the effects of crime.

They can also be used after personal pronouns, but only in formal or old-fashioned English.

He who is not for reform is against it.

we who are supposed to be so good at talking and writing.

Non-defining relative clauses are never used after pronouns.

88 Relative clauses can sometimes be reduced to non-finite clauses.

For example, instead of saying 'Give it to the man who is wearing the bowler hat', you can say 'Give it to the man wearing the bowler hat'. Similarly, instead of saying 'The bride, who was smiling happily, chatted to the guests', you can say 'The bride, smiling happily, chatted to the guests'.

These uses are explained in paragraphs 117 to 133. See also paragraphs 2.317 and 2.318 in the section on qualifiers.

Using relative pronouns in defining clauses

89 The following paragraphs explain which pronouns you use in defining relative clause.

90 When you are referring to a person or group of people, you use 'who' or 'that' as the subject of a defining clause. 'Who' is more common than 'that'.

The man who employed me would transport anything anywhere.

the people who live in the cottage.

somebody who is really ill.

the man that made it.

You use 'who', 'that', or 'whom' as the object of a defining clause, or you do not use a pronoun at all.

someone who I haven't seen for a long time.

a woman that I dislike.

distant relatives whom he had never seen.

a man I know.

You use 'that' as the complement of a defining clause, or you do not use a pronoun.

the distinguished actress that she later became.

That was the kind of person she was.

After a superlative, you do not usually use a pronoun.

He was the cleverest man I ever knew.

the best boy we ever had.

For more information about superlatives see paragraphs 2.117 to 2.12

91 When you are referring to a thing or group of things, you use 'which' or 'that' as the subject of a defining clause.

pasta which came from Milan.

In fact there are strategies which are much more reliable.

There are a lot of things that are wrong.

You use 'which' or 'that' as the object of a defining clause, or you do not use a pronoun.

shells which my sister had collected.

the oxygen that it needs.

one of the things I'll never forget.

After 'much' or 'all', you use 'that'. You do not use 'which'.

There was not much that the military men could do.

Happiness is all that matters.

Using relative pronouns in non-defining clauses

92 The following paragraphs explain which pronouns you use in non-defining relative clauses.

Unlike defining clauses, these clauses cannot be used without a relative pronoun.

referring to people 93 When you are referring to a person or group of people, you use 'who' as the subject of a non-defining clause.

Heath Robinson, who died in 1944, was a graphic artist and cartoonist.

The horse's rider, who has not been named, was too distressed to talk to police.

You use 'who' or 'whom' as the object of a non-defining clause.

That's one of the things which Heath, who I do not like, had a clear idea about.

He then became involved in a row with the party chairman, whom he accused of lying.

referring to things 94 When you are referring to a thing or group of things, you use 'which' or 'that' as the subject or object of a non-defining clause.

The treatment, which is being tried by researchers at four hospitals, has helped patients who have been failed to respond to other remedies.

British Rail, which has launched an enquiry, said one coach was badly damaged.

He was a man of considerable inherited wealth, which he ultimately spent on his experiments.

this offer, which few can resist.

Using relative pronouns with prepositions

95 A relative pronoun can be the object of a preposition. Usually the preposition goes towards the end of the clause, and not in front of the pronoun.

the job which I'd been training for.

the universe that we live in.

the woman who Muller left his money to.

no pronoun 96 Often, in ordinary speech, no pronoun is used.

Angela was the only person I could talk to.

that place I used to go to last term.

That's all we have time for this week.

indirect objects 97 When a relative pronoun is the indirect object of a verb, you use 'to' or 'for'. For example, you say 'the man that she wrote the letter to', not 'the man that she wrote the letter'.

pieces of work that we give a mark to.

You also use 'to' or 'for' when there is no relative pronoun.

the girl I sang the song for.

98 In formal English, the preposition can go at the beginning of a clause in front of 'whom' or 'which'.

These are the people to whom Catherine was referring.

a woman friend with whom Rose used to go for walks.

questions to which there were no answers.

Note however that you cannot put the preposition at the beginning of a clause in front of 'who' or 'that'.

99 If the verb in a relative clause is a phrasal verb ending with a preposition, you cannot move the preposition to the beginning of the clause.

all the things I've had to put up with.

the kind of life he was looking forward to.

There are other problems, which I don't propose to go into at the moment.

100 Words such as 'some', 'many', and 'most' can be put in front of 'of whom' or 'of which' at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause.

At the school we were greeted by the teachers, most of whom were middle-aged.

It is a language shared by several quite diverse cultures, each of which uses it differently.

Numbers can be put before or after 'of whom'.

They act mostly on suggestions from present members (four of whom are women).

Altogether 1,888 people were prosecuted, of whom 1,628 were convicted.

Using 'whose'

101 If you want to talk about something relating to the person, thing, or group you are talking about, you use a relative clause beginning with 'whose' and a noun group.

For example, instead of saying 'I am writing a letter to Nigel. His father is ill', you can say 'I am writing a letter to Nigel, whose father is ill'.

'Whose' can be used in defining or non-defining clauses.

workers whose bargaining power is weak.

anyone whose credit card is stolen.

She asked friends whose opinion she respected.

a country whose population was growing.

According to Cook, whose book is published on Thursday, most disasters are avoidable.

The noun after 'whose' can be the subject or object of the verb in the clause, or it can be the object of a preposition. If it is the object of a preposition, the preposition can come at the beginning or end of the clause.

the governments in whose territories they operate.

some strange fragment of thought whose origin I have no idea of.

102 In written English, 'of which' and 'of whom' are sometimes used instead of 'whose'. You put these expressions after a noun group beginning with 'the'.

For example, instead of writing 'a town whose inhabitants speak French', you can write 'a town the inhabitants of which speak French'.

circumstances the continuance of which was prejudicial to the safety of the public.

I travelled in a lorry the back of which the owner had loaded with yams.

Using other relative pronouns

103 Some other words and expressions can be used as relative pronouns.

non-defining clauses 104 'When' and 'where' are used in non-defining clauses.

I want to see you at 12 o'clock, when you go to your lunch.

Dan's fondest memory is of last year, when the club gave a tea party for the Queen Mother.

He came from Herne Bay, where Lally had once spent a holiday.

She carried them up the stairs to the art room, where the brushes and paints had been set out.

defining clauses 105 'When' and 'where' can also be used in defining clauses, but only when the clause is preceded by a particular kind of noun.

'When'-clauses must be preceded by the word 'time' or by the name of a period of time such as 'day' or 'year'.

There had been a time when she thought they were wonderful.

This is the year when the profits should start.

'Where'-clauses must be preceded by the word 'place' or by the name of a kind of place such as 'room' or 'street'.

the place where they work.

the room where I did my homework.

the street where my grandmother had lived.

Note that place names such as 'London' are proper nouns and so do not have defining relative clauses after them.

106 'Where' can also be used in defining clauses after words such as 'situation' and 'stage'.

Increasing poverty has led to a situation where the poorest openly admit that they cannot afford to have children.

In time we reached a stage where we had more black readers than white ones.

107 'Why' is used in defining clauses after the word 'reason'.

That is a major reason why were such poor countries.

'Whereby' is used in defining clauses after words such as 'arrangement' and 'system'.

I had worked out a rotating arrangement whereby every person would have a different roommate in each city.

They made a deal whereby he would sail for America and be commissioned in the revolutionary army.

108 Other expressions can be used in defining clauses in place of 'when', 'where', 'why', and 'whereby'.

After 'time' you can use 'at which' instead of 'when'.

the time at which the original mineral was formed.

After 'place' and words such as 'room', 'street', 'year', and 'month', you can use 'in which' instead of 'where' or 'when'.

the place in which they found themselves.

the room in which the meeting would be held.

the year in which Lloyd George lost power.

After 'day' you can use 'on which' instead of 'when'.

Sunday was the day on which we were expected to spend some time with my father.

After 'reason' you can use 'that' or no pronoun instead of 'why'.

the reason that non-violence is considered to be a virtue.

That's the reason I'm checking it now.

After words such as 'situation', 'stage', 'arrangement' or 'system' you can use 'in which' instead of 'where' or 'whereby'.

a stage of affairs in which the bonds between parents and children have been loosed.

Additional points about non-defining relative clauses

109 In written English, you can use a non-defining clause to say that one event happened after another.

For example, instead of saying 'I gave the book to George. George then gave it to Mary', you can say 'l gave the book to George, who gave it to Mary'.

Lord Thomson had bought the paper in the Fifties from Lord Kemsley, who had thereupon retired into obscurity.

The molten metal ran out on to the flagstones, which promptly exploded.

Later he went to New Zealand, where he did all sorts of jobs.

110 You can use a non-defining clause beginning with 'which' to say something about the whole situation described in a main clause, rather than about someone or something mentioned in it.

Minute computers need only minute amounts of power, which means that they will run on small batteries.

I never met Brando again, which was a pity.

Prior to speaking she was a little tense, which was understandable.

111 When you want to add something to what you have said, you sometimes use a non-defining clause beginning with a preposition, 'which', and a noun. The noun is often a word like 'time' or 'point', or a very general word for a situation like 'case' or 'event'.

They remain in the pouch for some seven weeks, by which time they are about 10cm long.

I was told my work was unsatisfactory, at which point I submitted my resignation.

Sometimes you may feel too frail too cope with things, in which case do them as soon as it is convenient.

Nominal relative clauses

112 When it is difficult to refer to something by using a noun group, you can sometimes use a special kind of relative clause called a nominal relative clause.

What he really needs is a nice cup of tea.

Whatever she does will determine the future of her administration.

113 Nominal relative clauses beginning with 'what' can be used as subjects, objects, or complements. 'What' can mean either 'the thing which' or 'the things which'.

What he said was perfectly true.

They did not like what he wrote.

I believe that is a very good account of what happened.

I'm what's generally called a traitor.

People often use a 'what'-clause in front of 'is' or 'was' to say what kind of thing they are about to mention.

What I need is a lawyer.

What you have to do is to choose five companies to invest in.

These structures are explained in paragraphs 10.28 to 10.30.

For another use of 'what' in nominal relative clauses see paragraph 11

114 Nominal relative clauses beginning with 'where' are usually used after a preposition or after the verb 'be'. 'Where' means 'the place where'.

I threw down my book and crossed the room to where she was sitting.

The god would return from where the sun rises and lay waste to the Aztec civilisation.

Stroud, I think, is where I want to die.

115 Nominal relative clauses beginning with 'whatever', 'whoever', or 'whichever' are used to refer to something or someone that is unknown or indefinite.

'Whatever' is used only to refer to things. 'Whoever' is used to refer to people. 'Whichever' is used to refer to either things or people.

'Whatever', 'whoever', and 'whichever' can be used as pronouns.

'Whichever' is often followed by 'of'.

I'll do whatever you want.

These wild flowers are so rare I want to do whatever I can to save them.

a person with written authority from whoever is dealing with the will.

People win choose whichever of these regimes they find suits them best.

'Whatever' and 'whichever' can also be used as determiners.

She had had to rely on whatever books were lying around these.

Choose whichever one of the three methods you fancy.

For more information about 'whatever', 'whoever', and 'whichever' see paragraph 42.

116 'What' can be used with the same meaning as 'whatever', both as a pronoun and a determiner.

Do what you like.

People survived by sharing out what money they could get from cattle-work.

The main use of 'what' in nominal relative clauses is explained paragraph 113.