A PRACTICAL ENGLISH COURSE IN LAW STUDIES

A PRACTICAL ENGLISH COURSE IN LAW STUDIES

Content

Introduction

I.

Grammar in a nutshell - Morphology/Morfologia

I.1. Articolul (The Article) Definition, examples and tasks

I.2. Substantivul (The noun) Definition, examples and tasks

I.3. Verbul (The verb - tenses of the indicative mood) Definition, examples and tasks

I.4. Adjectivul si gradele de comparatie (The adjective and the degrees of comparison) Definition,

examples and tasks

I.5. Pronumele (The pronoun) Definition, examples and tasks

II. Negation and illocutionary acts

II.1. Illocutionary acts - definition

II.2.Sentence - definition - 1 negation example

II.3.Sentence negators: categories:

a. particle no

b. adverbs

c. pronouns

d. any

e. affixes

II.4. Degrees of negativity

a. week vs. strong negation

b. emphatic negatives

c. semantic changes

II.5. Lexical negativity

II.6. Sentence negation - syntactic function

II.7.The negation of the verb in expressing / using tenses at the indicative mood

II.8.Tests of negativity

II.9.question tags

II.10. yes/ no questions

II.11.Tasks

III. English for Law

III.1. Translation exercises from English into Romanian

III.2. Translation exercises from Romanian into English

III.3. Creative writing

Recommended sites

Bibliography

Cursul de fata se adreseaza studentilor din anul I si al II-lea de studiu din cadrul Facultatii de

Drept. Obiectivele didactice vizeaza:

1. familiarizarea studentilor cu limba engleza daca acestia sunt la nivel de incepator, prin

explicarea cunostintelor de baza ale morfologiei, respectiv: articol, substantiv, verb, adjectiv,

pronume

2. aprofundarea notiunilor de gramatica limbii engleze, negatia in limba engleza avand aspecte

de morfologie si sintaxa

3. cunoasterea si intelegerea conceptelor fundamentale de drept civil, penal, comunitar si

international exprimate in limba engleza

4. asimilarea vocabularului de specialitate prin studiul textelor juridice din domeniile de interes

5. redactarea in limba engleza a textelor de specialitate

La incheierea cursului, studentii vor avea urmatoarele abilitati:

- vor avea capacitatea de a citi un text de specialitate si de a-l intelege

- vor putea redacta texte in limba engleza

- se vor putea exprima fluent

Teme de specialitate pentru anul I

1. The judiciary and the legislative in the UK

2. Courts in the UK

3. Criminal Law

4. Prosecutions; treatment of offenders in the UK

5. The Geneva Conventions

6. Criminal Law in the UK

7. Government employment services in the UK

8. The role of local education authorities in England and Wales

9. The European perspective on justice, freedom and security

Teme de specialitate pentru anul al II-lea

1. Criminal proceedings. Powers and mode of arrest

2. Crime in the USA. Corruption. Principles of criminal liability.

3. Warrants. Types of warrant in the UK.

4. Powers of entry, search and road checks. Identification of suspects.

5. European police cooperation

6. Offences against public justice and against person

7. Firearms, armed forces and bomb hoaxes

8. Legal aid. Procedure

9. Summoning and term. The Geneva Conventions

I. MORFOLOGIA (Morphology)

Prezentare generala

Cele doua parti constitutive ale gramaticii traditionale sunt morfologia si sintaxa. Morfologia cuprinde

regulile privitoare la forma cuvintelor si la modificarile formale ale cuvintelor studiate pe parti de vorbire;

sintaxa cuprinde regulile privitoare la imbinarea cuvintelor in propozitii si fraze.

Unitatea de analiza in gramatica traditionala este cuvantul.

Gramatica traditionala grupeaza cuvintele din punct de vedere morphologic in zece parti de vorbire:

1. articolul

2. substantivul

3. verbul

4. pronumele

5. numeralul

6. adjectivul

7. adverbul

8. prepozitia

9. conjunctia

10. interjectia

Partile de vorbire se disting dupa ceea ce exprima, numele unui obiect - (substantivul), un numar sau o

determinare numerica (numeralul), o actiune sau o stare (verbul), o caracteristica a unei actiuni, stari sau

insusjri (adverbul), exteriorizarea unui sentiment, a unei stari fizice, a unui act de vointa sau imitarea unui

sunet (interjecfia).

I.1. Articolul (The article)

Definitie.

Articolul este partea de vorbire care constituie un mijloc de individualizare a obiectelor si fenomenelor intr-

un context lingvistic sau situational; nu are forme flexionare, fiind neflexibil din punct de vedere

morfologic; indeplineste functia de determinant. Articolul este redat prin articolul hotarit the, articolul

nehotarit a sau an sau prin articolul zero. Aceste articole se folosesc pentru a realiza: 1) referinta unica

(unique reference) 2) referinta individuala (individual reference).

Articolul hotarat este folosit pentru a exprima referinta unica.

The earth moves round the sun. Pamintul se invirteste in jurul soarelui.

Articolul nehotarit poate fi folosit pentru introducerea in comunicare a unei notiuni care nu a fost

mentionata anterior.

TASKS

A. Fill in the blanks with the, a, an or no article:

"Do you see _____ man standing near ______ door? He works as _____ assistant in ____ same shop as I

do. Well, I saw him the other day and he was driving ______ red Porsche. And do you see ______

expensive clothes he's wearing? Where does he get ____ money to pay for it all? ______ month ago he

hadn't got _____ penny. I told you about ______ burglary that we had at ________ shop, didn't I? Do you

think I should go to _____ police?

B. Fill in the gaps with a or one:

....day last year - it was...very hot afternoon in June - I was hurrying to get home. I was

about...... hour late - well, to be precise, exactly...... hour and ten minutes: I had taken the

train that arrived at the station at 6.15. Anyway, there was..... woman standing under the trees, and

there were several children with her. I saw.... child clearly - she was ....lovely dark-haired girl

- but I only heard the others. Suddenly... strange thing happened. The girl took some stones and

leaves out of her pocket, and threw.... stone after another into the air.

C. Insert a or an if necessary:

My neighbour is...photographer; let's ask him for...advice about colour films.

We had...fish and...chips for....lunch.

That doesn't sound......very interesting lunch.

I had a very bad night. I didn't sleep ....wink.

We'd better go by..taxi - if we can get .....taxi at such .....hour as 2 a.m.

I.2. Substantivul (The noun)

Definitie

Substantivul denumeste obiecte in sens foarte larg, adica fiinte, lucruri, fenomene (man, chair, snow, walk,

wisdom); are categoriile gramaticale de gen, numar si caz; poate indeplini in propozitie functiile de subiect,

nume predicativ, atribut, apozitie, complement, element predicativ suplimentar, sau poate fi echivalentul

unei propozitii sau fraze.

Numarul substantivelor (Number of Nouns)

Substantivele in limba engleza au categoriile gramaticale de gen, numar si caz.

Numarul este categoria gramaticala care se recunoaste cel mai usor, datorita desinentei -s, specifica pentru

forma de plural a substantivelor. Din punct de vedere al ideii de numar, substantivele in limba engleza se

impart in numarabile (Count nouns) si nenumarabile (Mass nouns). Substantivele numarabile sunt de obicei

variabile ca forma (Variable nouns), avand atat singular cit si plural, iar cele nenumarabile sunt de regula

invariabile ca forma (Invariable nouns), avand forma numai de singular sau numai de plural.

TASKS

A. Use these collective nouns to complete the sentences that follow: audience, crew, enemy, family,

gang, government, media, public, staff, team

1. Take cover. The ........ are attacking.

2. Do you think Liverpool are the best ......... in Europe?

3. Dad is out but the rest of the ............ are at home.

4. The............ has decided to increase taxes.

5. The ship sank but the ........... are safe.

6. The office is closed. The .... are on strike.

7. The house was surrounded and the ......... were arrested.

8. The ............ is much bigger than at last night's performance.

9. The railways should provide a better service for the traveling ..........

10. Some sports stars are very badly treated by the newspapers and other ........

B.Write the plural of the following nouns:

1. address 4. witch 7. face 10. man

2. reply 5. box 8. tomato 11.child

3. toy 6. fish 9. deer 12. tooth

I.3. Verbul (The verb)

Definitie. Verbul este partea de vorbire care exprima actiuni, procese sau stari; are categorii gramaticale de

persoana si numar comune cu alte parti de vorbire si categoriile specifice de timp, mod, aspect si diateza;

indeplineste functia sintactica de predicat.

I..3.1. Categoriile gramaticale ale verbului

In limba engleza, verbul are forme gramaticale determinate de categoriile specifice de timp, aspect, diateza

si mod si de categoriile nespecifice de persoana si numar. In functie de prezenta sau absenta categoriilor de

timp persoana si numar, formele verbale in limba engleza se impart in forme personale si nepersonale.

Formele personale ale verbului (Finite Forms of the Verb) sunt modurile indicativ si subjonctiv. La aceste

forme, verbul este marcat pentru a exprima categoriile de timp, mod, diateza, aspect, persoana si numar, iar

din punct de vedere sintactic, ele pot forma singure predicatul si se acorda in numar si persoana cu

subiectul.

Formele nepersonale ale verbului (Non-Finite Forms of the Verb) sunt infinitivul, Gerund-ul (Gerunziul),

participiul prezent si participiul trecut. Aceste forme nu au categoriile de timp, persoana si numar si nu pot

forma singure predicatul propozitiei.

I. 3.2. Timpul (Tense)

Categoria gramaticala a timpului (Tense), categorie specifica verbelor, se refera la ordinea evenimentelor in

timp, asa cum este perceputa aceasta de vorbitor in momentul vorbirii.

Momentul in care are loc actul de vorbire este momentul prezent (now). Fata de acest moment, care

constituie axa de referinta a prezentului, unele evenimente sunt:

a)

anterioare, cand ele au loc inainte de momentul vorbirii (evenimentele sunt amintite de vorbitor):

Present Perfect;

b)

posterioare f ata de momentul vorbirii (evenimentele fiind anticipate de vorbitor, deoarece vor

avea loc intr-un moment posterior momentului vorbirii Future;

c)

simultane cu momentul vorbirii (avand loc in acelasi timp) Present.

Considerand momentul vorbirii punctul prezent, vorbitorul isi poate aminti un eveniment care a avut loc la

un moment anterior momentului vorbirii (then). In raport cu acest moment amintit then, care se refera la

trecut, alte evenimente pot fi:

a)

b)

c)

anterioare momentului trecut then: Past Perfect;

simultane cu then: Past Tense;

posterioare: Future in the Past.

De asemenea, in momentul vorbirii (now), vorbitorul poate anticipa anumite evenimente (posterioare

momentului vorbirii). In raport cu un anume eveniment posterior momentului prezent (axa de referinta a

viitorului). Alte evenimente pot fi:

a)

b)

c)

anterioare: Future Perfect;

simultane: Future;

posterioare: engleza nu are marca formala pentru aceste evenimente.

In analiza timpului trebuie astfel luate in consideratie urmatoarele elemente:

a)

b)

c)

momentul vorbirii

momentul actiunii;

axa sau momentul de referinta.

In f unctie de cele trei elemente - momentul vorbirii, momentul actiunii si momentul de referinta - limba

engleza cunoaste urrnatorul sistem de timpuri:

-

-

-

pe axa prezentului: Present, Present Perfect, Future;

pe axa trecutului: Past Tense, Past Perfect, Future in the Past;

pe axa viitorului: Future, Future Perfect

I.3.2.1. Timpul prezent simplu (Present Tense Simple)

Definitie. Prezentul simplu desemneaza un eveniment (o actiune sau stare) care se intampla simultan cu

momentul vorbirii (prezentul instantaneu) sau care include momentul vorbirii (prezentul generic si

habitual).

Forma. Din punct de vedere al formei, prezentul simplu este identic cu infinitivul, la toate persoanele

singular si plural, cu exceptia persoanei a III-a singular, care adauga -(e).s: Ex: I learn/ You learn/ He, She

learns/ We learn/ You learn/ They learn

TASKS

A. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verb in brackets at the present simple tense:

He (live)... in Belgravia in London's West End. He's very rich, and he (own)..... the company

Office Blocks International. Every morning the young Lord (have)..... breakfast in bed and

(read)... the newspapers. He (get)..... up at ten o'clock and usually (go)... for a walk in

Hyde Park. He (have).... lunch at his club. He sometimes (meet)... the directors of OBI, and they

(talk).... about the company's plans. In the afternoon, Lord Stonebury and his friends (play).. golf.

Then they (have).... a few drinks. Or sometimes, he and his girl friend (go)...for a drive in his

sports car. After dinner Lord Stonebury (go).... to a night club or a casino with one of his friends. They

(get)..... home at about two o'clock.

B. Find and correct the verbs in the present tense that are mistaken in the text below:

Dear John,

Thank you for your very interesting letter. I am very pleased to be your pen friend. Are you really have a

swimming pool in the garden? It sound wonderful. As you know from my advertisement, I have 17 years

old and came from Cartagena in Chile. I've got two sisters and they is both older than me. My father own a

small factory paper but my mother don't work. We living in a house outside the city. I enjoying playing

football and I am like science-fiction films.

I. Look at this learner's text. Match the teacher's ticks and corrections 1-10 to rules a) - f) below

C. Put the verbs into brackets into simple present or present continuous tense:

1. What Tom (think)..... of the Budget?

2. He (think)..... it most unfair.

I (agree)....... with him.

3. How much... this one (cost)....?

It (cost)..... forty pence.

4. Look at that crowd. I (wonder)...... what they (wait)..... for.

5. This story is about a boy who (make).. friends with a snake which he (find).....

in the garden. Then he (go).... away but he (not forget)... the snake and some

years later he (return)... and (look)..... for it.

6. He (find).... the snake who (recognize)..... its old friend and (coil)....

round him affectionately. But, unfortunately, the snake is by now a full-grown boa-

constrictor and its embrace (kill).... the poor boy.

The snake (feel)..... sorry about this?

I (not know).... The story (end)....... there.

7. How .....you (end).... a letter that (begin)....., "Dear Sir?"

I always (put)....., "Yours truly", but Tom (prefer)..... "Yours

faithfully".

D. Look at this learner's text. Match the teacher's ticks and corrections 1-10 to rules a) - f) below

My name is Kim and I'm Korean. My family is living in lives..b)

an apartment near the centre of Seoul, and they all 1........

1 love the city except me. They 2 are thinking that 2 think...

cities are exciting, but 3 I'm not agreeing with them; I 3 don't agree

4 am preferring quieter towns or villages. Anyway, 4 prefer.....

just this month I 5 work for a small travel agency; I 5 'm working..

6 want to go traveling in Europe next month but 7 I'm 6 ......

needing to earn some money first. 8 I'm thinking of doing 7 need....

a course when I come back from Europe - my English 8.......

9 gets better so maybe I can study abroad next time. 9 is getting...

That's very expensive, of course. Perhaps that 10 is 10 depends..

depending on how much I can earn - and my parents!

Note:

a) use the present continuous to talk about changing situations

b) use the present simple to talk about a permanent situation

c) use the present simple with a "thought" or "feeling" verb

d) use the present simple with verbs describing what things are, what they are like and what they

possess

e) use the present continuous for a temporary situation

use the present continuous for a temporary thought

f) use the present continuous for a temporary thought

I.3.2.2. Timpul trecut simplu (Past Tense Simple)

Definitie. Past Tense, aspectul simplu, desemneaza un eveniment definit care a avut loc pe axa trecutului

(evenimentul este amintit in momentul prezent). Past Tense simplu este folosit pentru a exprima o actiune

savarsita si incheiata intr-un moment trecut:

Forma. Marca timpului Past Tense simplu este, la verbele regulate, -ed.

We listened to the concert last night. Am ascultat concertul aseara.

In cazul verbelor neregulate este folosita forma a II-a. I wrote the letter to Mary. Am scris scrisoarea

Mariei.

Verbe neregulate

Infinitiv Past Tense

be was/were

beat beat

Participiu

trecut

been

beaten-

Traducerea

infinitivuiui

a fi

a bate

Observatii

become became

begin began

blow blew

break broke

breed bred

become

begun

blown

broken

bred

a deveni

a incepe

a suf!a, a bate

a (se) sparge

a creste, a educa

bring

build

brought

buili

brought

buili

a'aduce

a construi

buy

catch

choose

come

cost

cut

deal

do

dra w

dream

drink

drive

dwell

eat

fall

feed

feel

fight

find,

fly .

forbid

forget

forgive

freeze

bought

caught

chose

came

cost

cut

dealt

did

drevy

dreamt

drank

drove-

dwelt

ate

fell

fed

felt

fought

found

flew

forbad(e)

forgot

forgave

froze

bo Ugh I

caught

chosen

come

cost

cut

dealt

done

drawn

dreamt

drunk

driven

dwell

eaten

fallen

fed

fell

fought

found

flown

forbidden

forgotten

forgiven

frozen

a cumpara

a prinde

a alege

a veni

a costa

a taia

a trata, a se

ocupa de

a face

a trage, a desena

a visa

a bea

a mina, a sofa

a locui

a manca

a cadea

a hrani

a (se) sirati

a (se) lupta

a gasi

a zbura

a interzice

a uita

a ierta

a ingheta

R. dreamed - in spe-

cial in engleza ameri-

drunken - adj.

R. dwelled (rar)

in engleza americana

engl. britanica,: ate

(et); engl.

americana: ate (eit)

.

get

tgive

go

grow

have

hear

hide

hit

hold

got

gave

went

grew

had

heard

hid

hit

held

got

given

gone

grown

had

heard

hidden

hit

held

a primi, a obtine engl. americana:

get, got, gotten

a da

a merge

a creste

a avea

a auzi

a (se) ascunde Partioipiul trecut si

hid (rar)

a lovi

a |ine

hurt

keep

know

lay

lead

learn

leave

lend

lei

light

hurl

kept

knew

laid

led

learnt

left

lent

let

lit

hurt

kept

known

laid

led

learnt

left

lent

let

lit

a lovi, a rani, a

durea

a |ine, a pastra

a ti, a cunoasjte

a pune, a aseza

a conduce

a invata

, a pleca, a lasa

a da cu

imprumut

a lasa, a permite

a aprinde

R. learned -

engl.

americana; adj.:

a learned [k:nid] man

R. lighted

lie

lose

make

mean

meet

lay

lost

made

meant

met

lain

lost

made

meant

met

a zacea, a se afla R. lie, lied = a min|i

a pierde

a face

a insemna

a (se) intilni

mow

mowed

mown, mowed a cosi

pay

put

read.

ring

run

say

i

paid

put

read

rang

ran

said

paid

put

read

rung

run

said

a plati

a punt

a citi

a suna

a fugi

a spune

pers. Ill singular says

[sez]

see

sell

send

show

shut

sing

sit

saw

sold

sent

showed

shut

sang

sat

seen

sold

sent

shown

shut

sung

sat

a vedea

a vinde

a. trimite

a arata

a include

a einta

a sedea

Uneori ortografiat

shew, shewed,

shewn

sleep

smell

speak

speed

spell

spend

spread

slept

smell

spoke

sped

spelt

spent

spread

slept

s melt

spoken

sped

spelt

spent

spread

a dormi

a mirosi

a vorbi

a grabi, a

accelera

a ortografia

a cheltui; a

petrece

a (se) intinde

R. smelled -

engleza americana

i R.: speeded

R. spelled - engleza

americana

steal

stick

swim

take

teach

tell

think

throw

stole

stuck

swam

took

taught

told

thought

threw

stolen

stuck

swum

taken

taught.

told

thought

thrown

a fura, a se furisa

a lipi

a inota

a lua

a invafa (pe

altui), a preda

a spune, a

povesti

a (se) gindi

a arunca

'

understandd understood understood

a intelege

wear

weep

wet

win

write

TASKS

wore

wept

wet

won

wrote

worn

wept

wet

won

written

a purta

a plinge

a uda

a cistiga

a scrie

si R. wetted

A. Fill in each gap with a verb from the box in the past tense simple. (The text below describes an

unsuccessful driving test.)

be feel move pay push say run say stop try

On my first test, I 1..... out of petrol. Shortly after the restart from the emergency stop, the car

2..... again, although I 3.... five times to restart.

"No", I 4...... to the examiner. "It won't start." The examiner 5...... into the driving seat,

and I 6....... the car to the nearest service station, where I 7...... for the petrol. "This is

not your fault and will not affect whether you pass the test", he 8......., but I 9.......

terrified and 10..... not surprised to fail for lack of observation.

B. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense:

1. Ann sees Paul putting on his coat and says: Where you (go ) , Paul?

2. I (go ) to buy some cigarettes. You (want) an evening paper?

3. Mary ( see ) Peter standing at the bus stop.

4. What bus you (wait ) for?

5. I usually (go ) to work by car, don't you?

6. Yes, but the car (belong ) to my mother and she sometimes (want ) it.

7. She ( use ) it today to take Tom to the dentist.

C. Put the verbs in brackets into the simple past or past continuous:

I ( walk ) along the Piccadily when I (realize ) that a man with a ginger beard,

whom I had seen three times already that afternoon, ( follow ) me.

To make quite sure, I (walk ) on quickly, (turn ) right, then left and (stop ) suddenly at a

shop window.

In a few minutes the man with the beard (appear ) and (stop ) at another shop window.

I.3.2.3. Viitorul simplu (Shall/Will Future)

Definitie. Viitorul simplu desemneaza un eveniment posterior fata de momentul vorbirii. Viitorul simplu

este un viitor pur, indicand doar ca actiunea are loc 'intr-un moment viitor, mai apropiat sau adeseori mai

indepartat de momentul vorbirii.

Forma. In structura viitorului simplu intra verbul auxiliar shall la persoana I singular si plural, will la

persoana a II-a si a Ill-a singular si plural si infinitivul scurt al verbului de conjugat:

I shall go to the seaside tomorrow./ Vom merge la mare maine.

TASK

Decide if the underlined verbs in the sentences below refer to present time (p) or future time (f):

1. I'm spending a few weeks with an uncle in the States this summer. _f_

2. I can't find Barbara. Maybe she's meeting the others for lunch. ___

3. When you see her, could you tell her to give me a call? ___

4. The show starts at 8.30 every day except Monday. ___

5. I hope everyone's ready. We leave first thing in the morning. ___

I.4. ADJECTIVUL (The Adjective)

Definitie. Adjectivul este partea de vorbire care exprima o calitate a unui obiect (an interesting lecture, an

old man); are categoria gramaticala a comparatiei: He is taller than his brother.; indeplineste functiile

sintactice de atribut, apozitie, nume predicativ, element predicativ suplimentar.

Adjectivele monosilabice formeaza comparativul si superlativul in mod sintetic. Ele primesc -(e)r la

comparativ si the -(e)st la superlativ:

small -smaller -the smallest

short - shorter - the shortest

Adjectivele formate din d o u a sau mai multe silabe formeaza comparativul si superlativul analitic cu

ajutorul lui more si the most:

careful - more careful - the most careful

difficult - more difficult - the most difficult

TASKS

A. Write the comparative and superlative for the following adjectives:

1. thin -

2. beautiful -

3. nice -

4. good -

5. bad -

B. Fill in the blanks with you, your, they or them

"_____ 've put the price of stamps up again."

"Oh, ______ haven't, have ______? ________ seem to do it more and more often. ______ can buy more

than a few stamps at a time, or else ________ have to buy extra 1p stamps to add to all 7 letters."

"I know. And it's got so expensive! Nowadays_____ think twice before _______ write a letter. Of course

___'ve got special rates for businesses - it's only ordinary people that pay the extra."

"I know. It makes ______ wonder why we keep electing ______."

C. Fill in the blanks with like or as :

1. He died ....he lived, fighting.

2. It's mended, ...you can see.

3. In Paris,....in Rome, traffic is heavy.

4. His eyes are .... knives.

5. My brother isn't at all... me.

6. She left... she came, silently.

7. You're shy, .. me.

8. Your smile is..... your sister's.

9. ... I said, you're too late.

D. Choose between all and everything:

a. I hurry to laugh at .. for fear of having to cry.

b. I can resist .... except temptation.

c. You can only have power over people so long as you don't take... away from

them.

d. They say .... in the world is good for something.

i. Life is like nothing, because it is......

E. Insert a, an, the, my, his, her, our, your, their:

1. He took off ........ coat and set to work.

2. Why are you standing with ........hand in ........pockets?

3. At most meeting people vote by raising.........right hands.

4. He tore ........trousers getting over a barbed wire fence.

5. She pulled.........sleeve to attract his attention.

6. He stroked .........chin thoughtfully.

7. If you are too hot why don't you take off.........coat?

8. He pointed to a woman in..........her green dress.

9. You'll strain .......eyes if you read in .........bad light.

10. Leave......coats in .....cloakroom; don't bring them into.....theatre.

F.Insert a, an, the, or my, his, her, our, their if necessary.

1. At most meetings ... people vote by raising... right hands.

2. There was a shot and a policeman came out with... blood running down .. face.

3. We shook ... hands with .. host.

4. You'll strain .. eyes if you read in ... bad light.

5. He is .. throughly selfish man; he wouldn't lift.. finger to help anyone.

6. He was ...very tall man with ... dark hair and... small beard, but I couldn't see ...

eyes because he was wearing ... dark glasses.

7. He stroked..chin thoughtfully.

8. He pointed to a woman in ... green dress.

9. He has .. horrible job; I wouldn't like to be in ... shoes.

10. Brother and sister were quite unlike each other. He had .. fair hair; .. hair was dark

and straight.

11. I saw him raise.. right hand and take ... oath.

12. I have .. headache.

G.Insert the necessary capital letters in the following passage:

professor arnold smith, who has spent a lifetime studying prehistoric remains, claims that the bones he

unearthed in the californian desert area last may are those of a man-like creature existing millions of

years ago, probably at a time when the pacific ocean covered much more of the surface of this part of

the american continent . professor smith is to give a talk on the subject on bbc television on Monday,

4^th april, in the series "where did we come from?" this is to be followed by a discussion with members

of the lost atlantic society whose president, colonel arthur stone, contends that california is in fact a

part of the legendary city, the remainder of which lies hidden under the sea.

II. NEGATION AND ILLOCCUTIONARY ACTS

1. Illocutionary acts - definition

2. Sentence - definition - 1 negation examples

3. Sentence negators: categories:

f. particle no

g. adverbs

h. pronouns

i. any

j. affixes

4. Degrees of negativity

d. week vs. strong negation

e. emphatic negatives

f. semantic changes

5. Lexical negativity

6. Sentence negation - syntactic functions

7. The negation of the verb in expressing / using tenses at the indicative mood

8. Tests of negativity

a. question tags

b. yes/ no questions

9. Tasks

Illocutionary acts - definition

The English language is used for specific communication purposes, in various registers, such as: the

English used for business, finance, journalism, advertising, psychology, sociology, etc.

Definition: The illocutionary or communicative acts are those represented by the process of making

statements, asking questions, giving directives with the aim of getting the hearer to carry out some

action, making an offer or promise, thanking or expressing an exclamation.

Ex: I saw Susan in London last year.

1. Sentence

Definition: The basic unit for the expression of interpersonal and experiential meanings is the

independent clause, equivalent for the traditional "simple sentence". It is also connected with the idea

of predication.

Ex: Your English seems to be very good.

Sentence negation is given by the use of negators such as the particle "no/not", negative adverbs or

pronouns.

Ex: The readers did not believe that the story was true.

The readers never believed that the story was true.

The readers hardly believed that the story was true.

None of the readers believed that the story was true.

Few of the readers believed that the story was true.

Inherent negation with stylistic function:

Ex: The readers were unable to believe that the story was true.

The readers were too smart to believe that the story was true.

The readers did not believe that the story was true.

Forms of negative sentences:

A. Declarative negative: I won't buy any cakes.

B. Interrogative negative: Won't you buy some cakes?

C. Imperative negative : Don't buy any cakes!

2. Sentence negation - syntactic functions

Subject: Nothing is ever expected of him.

No one saw him.

Object: We saw no one.

We heard nothing.

I lend my car to no one.

Adverbial: We drove to nowhere.

3. Sentence negators. Categories

Forming negative statements - when you want to say that something is not true, is not happening or is

not the case, you normally use a negative statement

a. Negative adverb - not

ex: Not many people were present at the wedding.

Not anyone who writes poems is a poet.

Not a single man was killed.

"All that glitters is not gold."

"All men are not born to reign."

"Reason is given to all men but all men do not know how to use it."

b. Negative Adverb/ indefinite place adverb (nowhere)

Ex: There's almost nowhere left to go.

I never knew what she meant. (never + verb = emphatic use)

c. General determiner - NO - which is used in front of singular and plural noun groups to

state that something does not exist.

Ex: There was no money for an operation.

We had no union.

He has no ambition.

I could see no tracks.

d. Negative Pronouns (none)/ Indefinite pronouns (no one, nothing, nobody)

ex: I waited for comments but none came.

None of as a quantifier

None of the townspeople had ever seen such weather.

None of this has happened without our consent.

Nobody in her house knows any English. Nobody knew the truth.

There's nothing I can do. Nothing happened.

e. Any; anybody anywhere, anyhow

Ex: He didn't say anything.

No one said anything.

He didn't want to go anywhere.

Jane wasn't so pleased to listen the lecture anyhow.

f. Affixes - prefixes: A, Anti, Counter, De, Dis, Ex, Il, Ir, Im, In, Mal, Mis, Non, Un

A prefix such as un-, dis- can be added to the beginning of some words to give them the

opposite meaning

Ex: Jane was unhappy. She unpacked.

The footpath was invisible.

There's enormous inefficiency in the system.

He has reached an illogical conclusion.

I disliked change of any kind.

He gave a look of disapproval.

It was a peaceful, non-violent protest.

The match was a non- event.

They were completely helpless.

Many of them were speechless.

Broad negatives - adverbs: barely, scarcely, rarely, and seldom

If they are put in initial position in the sentence this process triggers subject - predicate inversion - in

formal or literary English

Ex: I could scarcely believe my eyes. Scarcely could I believe my eyes.

Examiners were seldom unkind.

The new pressure group is barely six months old.

The office was hardly ever empty.

The lagoons are rarely deep.

The results were scarcely encouraging.

4. Degrees of negativity

a. week vs. strong negation

ex: I didn't miss anyone.

I missed no one.

b. emphatic negatives that triggers syntactic change subject - predicate/ auxiliary verb

ex: Never (before) have I met anyone so strange.

I haven't ever met anyone so strange.

5. Lexical negativity

The process of negation is given by the use of one category of negators (particle "no/not" attached to

the auxiliary verb or the use of a negative adverb or pronoun):

Ex:

John isn't too smart, in fact anybody in their family is so.

I don't know what has become of her, I haven't seen her in years.

Help me, please! I can't budge this rock.

They say that this doctor has never studied anything anywhere.

Nobody told us anything to any of us.

I'm sure that Mark didn't lift a finger to call me.

I didn't sleep a wink last night.

I didn't touch a drop ever since I have this ulcer.

The negation of the verb in expressing / using tenses at the indicative mood

Negatives of tenses

For the simple present tense negative we use does not + infinitive for the third person and do not +

infinitive for the other persons.

Both are usually contracted in speech: he doesn't work; you don't work

The simple past tense makes its negative with did not (didn't) + infinitive: he/ we/ / they didn't work

All other tenses are formed with auxiliaries, and the negative is formed by putting not after the auxiliaries.

Contractions are usual in speech:

Ex:

I haven't seen him.

It won't be easy.

I shan't be here tomorrow.

He won't drink wine.

They hadn't applied for visas.

The present continuous tense and the perfect tenses can be contracted in two ways:

Ex:

He is not coming./ He isn't coming. / He's not coming.

I have not seen it./ I haven't seen it. / I've not seen it.

The future tense is normally contracted to won't but I'll is also possible.

Ex:

He'll not see you tomorrow./ He won't see you tomorrow.

In English a negative sentence can have only one negative expression in it. So, never, no, none, nobody, no

one, nothing, hardly, hardly ever etc. are used with an affirmative verb.

Ex:

He ate nothing. He didn't eat anything.

He never complains. He doesn't ever complain.

We have seen no one. We haven't seen anyone.

They hardly spoke at all. They hardly ever spoke. They didn't speak much.

Double negation - Unlike some languages, standard national forms of English (British, American,

Canadian, Australian) do not favour multiple negation that is a succession of nuclear negative items in one

clause, although this is a feature of some dialects of English. Instead, the first negative item is followed

throughout the rest of the clause by non-assertive forms (any-)

Ex: not many Spaniards have any knowledge of bull-fighting.

Most Spaniards have some knowledge of bull- fighting.

Neighbours should not be uncooperative.

Neighbours should be cooperative.

Tests of negativity

In question tags - these are short addition to sentences asking for agreement or confirmation

A. After negative statement we use the ordinary interrogative

Ex: You didn't see him, did you?

Ann can't swim, can she?

Peter doesn't smoke, does he?

Bill didn't want to go, did he?

James wasn't driving the car, was he?

There wasn't enough time, was there?

Ann hasn't got colour TV, has she?

B. After affirmative statements we use the negative interrogative

Ex: Peter helped you, didn't he?

"You are going to do this, aren't you?" "Yes."

"David's is quite a nice school, isn't it?" "Yes, it is."

Mary was there, was she?

Note that statements containing words such as: neither, nor, none, no one, nobody, nothing,

scarcely, barely, hardly, seldom are treated like negative statements and followed by an

ordinary interrogative tag

Ex: None of your friends liked the film, did they?

Nothing was said, was it?

Peter hardly ever goes to parties, does he?

When the subject of the sentence is no one, nobody, anyone, anybody, none, neither we use the pronoun

THEY as the subject of the tag

Ex: I don't suppose anyone will volunteer, will they?

None of the bottles are broken, are they?

Neither of them complained, did they?

INTONATION: When question tags are used, the speaker doesn't normally need information but merely

expects agreement. These tags are therefore normally said with a falling intonation, as in statements.

Sometimes, however, the speaker does want information. He is not quite sure that the statement is true, and

wants to be reassured. In this case, the question tag is said with a rising intonation and the important word

in the first sentence is stressed, normally with a rise of pitch.

yes/ no questions

A. Questions requiring the answer yes or no In these questions the auxiliary comes first

Ex: Do you smoke? Yes, I do./ No, I don't.

The answer without the auxiliary is less polite

Do you understand my question?

Didn't you meet George in France?

Am I wrong?

Hasn't she got a car?

Agreements and disagreements with remarks

Ex: Tom drinks too much. Yes, he does.

Disagreements with negative remarks

Ex: I'm not getting fatter. Yes, you are.

Agreements with negative remarks

Ex: It wouldn't take long. No, it wouldn't.

Disagreements with affirmative remarks

Ex: We have plenty of time. No, we haven't.

LONG (UNCONTRACTED) FORMS

Indicative Mood / Tense

Aspect

Simple/ Affirmative

Simple/ Negative

------------------------------------

Continuous/ Affirmative

Continuous/ Negative

Example

He works

He does not work

------------------------------------

He is working

He is not working

Present

Past

Future

------------------------------------

Perfect/ Affirmative

Perfect/ Negative

------------------------------------

Perfect continuous/ Affirmative

Perfect continuous/ Negative

Simple / Affirmative

Simple/ Negative

------------------------------------

Continuous / Affirmative

Continuous/ Negative

------------------------------------

Perfect / Affirmative

Perfect/ Negative

------------------------------------

Continuous / Affirmative

Continuous/ Negative

Simple / Affirmative

Simple/ Negative

------------------------------------

Continuous / Affirmative

Continuous/ Negative

------------------------------------

Perfect / Affirmative

Perfect/ Negative

------------------------------------

Perfect continuous / Affirmative

Perfect continuous / Negative

------------------------------------

He has worked

He has not worked

------------------------------------

He has been working

He has not been working

He worked

He did not work

------------------------------------

He was working

He was not working

------------------------------------

He had worked

He had not worked

------------------------------------

He had been working

He had not been working

He will work

He will not work

------------------------------------

He will be working

He will not be working

------------------------------------

He will have worked

He will not have worked

------------------------------------

He will have been working

He will not have been working

CONTRACTED (SHORT) FORMS

Indicative Mood / Tense Aspect

Simple/ Affirmative

Simple/ Negative

------------------------------------

Continuous/ Affirmative

Continuous/ Negative

Example

He works

He does not work / He doesn't

work

------------------------------------

He is working / He's working

He is not working / He's not

working / He isn't working

Present

------------------------------------

Perfect/ Affirmative

Perfect/ Negative

------------------------------------

Perfect continuous/ Affirmative

Perfect continuous/ Negative

------------------------------------

He has worked / He's worked

He has not worked / He hasn't

worked / He's not worked

------------------------------------

He has been working/ He's been

working

He has not been working/ He

hasn't been working/ He's not

been working

Past

Future

Future

Simple/ Affirmative

Simple/ Negative

------------------------------------

Continuous/ Affirmative

Continuous/ Negative

------------------------------------

Perfect/ Affirmative

Perfect/ Negative

------------------------------------

Continuous/ Affirmative

Continuous/ Negative

Simple/ Affirmative

Simple/ Negative

Continuous/ Affirmative

Continuous/ Negative

------------------------------------

Perfect/ Affirmative

Perfect/ Negative

------------------------------------

Perfect continuous/ Affirmative

Perfect continuous/ Negative

He worked

He did not work / He didn't work

------------------------------------

He was working

He was not working / He wasn't

working

------------------------------------

He had worked

He had not worked / He hadn't

worked

------------------------------------

He had been working

He had not been working / He

hadn't been working

He will work / He'll work

He will not work / He won't work

He will be working/ He'll be

working

He will not be working / He